A Reality Check In Contemporary Indian Media Media Essay

A Reality Check In Contemporary Indian Media Media Essay The paper discusses the evolution of the Gatekeeping Model over the years and examines how the traditional roles of gatekeeping have witnessed a change. From editors and reporters, the news and information is now being filtered by corporate houses, sponsors, advertisers, politicians and in case of the social media, the audience themselves. The research also offers an overview of the trend of cross media ownership in India and how the sponsors are influencing the information carried where corporatization of the media has affected the flow of news. Besides, it also studies the idea of gatekeeping in India in the context of social networking where the users themselves are gatekeepers. The paper suggests that the traditional methods of gatekeeping have decayed and hence it should be understood in novel contexts keeping in mind the rapid growth of new technologies and different ways of mass communication. Keywords: Gatekeeping, Advertisers, Social media, Indian media. Which news is more valuable? Twenty one persons killed and dozens injured in train collision or The speeding train kills seven elephants. Most people would say both are equally important but the people who are actually involved in the process of news selection and placement will be holding a different view. One of the news stories will be given more value than the other and so would be placed accordingly in the news paper. One of them might take a position on the front page while the other might have to be satisfied by being on some inside page. Most of the times, the stories with comparatively less value might not even get a chance to be published if the space on the page is not enough. Everyday numerous events take place that need reporting but not all of them can be published in a news paper or be flashed on a TV screen or announced on a radio set. The idea of gatekeeping seems logical at first since there is a limitation of time and space in publications and channels and very sim ply put, not everything can be shown or published. Thus, some kind of filtration is but natural. However, there are conscious processes involved which decide what has to be transmitted and what has to be withheld. The earliest concept of gatekeeping has assigned this conscious role to the editors of media houses. Traditionally, such decisions were based on the principles of news value and making such decisions used to be the major task of a gatekeeper which was taken up by the editor of a news paper. Every story that used to enter the newsroom had to go through the scrutiny of the editor and only after the editor approves, it was allowed to be published. Hence, it can be said that an editor used to have the final say in what is to be sent to the readers and what not. Editor was the sole authority holding the gate through which the stories pass. The traditional theories and models on gatekeeping also laid emphasis on the importance of the role of an editor in the paradigm of news communication. The famous model of gate keeping given by D.M. White(1950) focused only on the role of an editor as the man who made decisions. However, his theory was criticized when the other factors influencing the decision started gaining recognition. The editors started losing their say in the news selection process as the media got locked into the power structure, and consequently as acting largely in tandem with the dominant institutions in society. The media thus reproduced the viewpoints of dominant institutions not as one among a number of alternative perspectives, but as the central and obvious or natural perspective (Curran et al, 1982). The element of biasness affects the information that is received by the reader. The editor is required to keep in mind a number of things other than the news value principles for letting a story be published. The flow of information is being regulated by the gatekeepers who are not directly involved in the news gathering process but are the managers and the owners of the media firms or the advertisers or other stake holders. Money and power are able to filter out the news fit to print, marginalize dissent, and allow the government and dominant private interests to get their messages across to the public (Herman and Chomsky, 1988). The political affiliation of a media outlet determines the ideology it would stand for and hence the gatekeeping will be done accordingly. The gatekeeper moulds the stories in a way that satisfy the interest of a political leader or a group and so changing the angle and slant of the real truth. Mass media content is influenced by media workers socialization and attitudes. Their professional training, personal and political attitudes and affiliations lead them to produce a social reality (Riaz, 2008). To a certain level, gatekeeping is very important for communication planning but as the news media has been overpowered by the top tier of corporate, it is becoming more of a negative term. Commercial advertising is the principal source of revenue for media and is very important for ensuring the survival of the media houses. In fact, the biggest regulators of the flow of information are the commercial organizations providing financial support to the media outlets in the form of advertisements. This has not only changed the nature of flow of news but also the entire set up of a news paper. Twenty five years ago, we could never imagine that first page of a newspaper in India would be full page advertisement. The news paper today looks more of a product catalogue than a news journal. On one hand, the globalization and liberalization provides a better scope of mediating while on the other it has given rise to commercialization of news. The profit making motive of the owners and publishers has led to backroom negotiation and encouraged payola which further leads to withholding of information and possibilities and hence preventing the readers from realizing the importance of truth in order to create the desired effect in the society. This can be easily related to agenda-setting. The gatekeeping today, is a vital part of the agenda-setting function of media as it is vastly used as a helping tool by the agenda setters. According to the agenda-setting theory, because of the fact of paying attention to some issues and neglecting and ignoring some others, the mass media will have an effect on public opinion (Riaz, 2008). For example, while watching a cricket match on television, one cannot watch the action taking place in the whole ground and also the spectators present in the pavilion from every angle at the same time. Even though today the information is coming from all corners, newspapers still remains as the top most trusted source in India and so the editorial decisions made in the dark without proper justification is not only an irresponsible act but also a corrupt practice. Keeping the gate is a serious responsibility and if the gatekeepers integrity is lost, the news paper too will loose its integrity. The gatekeeper has the power to forward the selected news items to the consumers. Therefore, the gatekeeper must have a moral justification of selecting a news story over the other because with power comes the accountability. News comes from the people and goes back to them. People are the ultimate source and the consumers of information. Hence, it is very important to ensure that the interests of the people are met. But the commercialization of media has led to conscious manipulations in sending back to the public what they are interested in and what can be discussed.Gatekeeping today can be called as one of the barriers to communication because the gatekeepers decide the nature of thoughts that will be created in the minds of the people and dictate what is worthy of the attention of the receiver. Here, one can raise an eyebrow and can ask for ones right to information. There has been numerous instances where biased gatekeeping created false or skewed notion of an institution, event or an individual. These will be discussed later in the paper.    Gatekeepers of news and information: The theoretical underpinning The gatekeepers model has been the bedrock of many communication studies in India and abroad and it has been the most debated theory as well. Communication scholars like Wilbur Schramm have outlined the basic tenets of the process of communication. A message is sent by a sender to a receiver through a channel and the receiver gives feedback making the communication process a dynamic and continuous one. However, the gatekeepers model has been seminal in the sense that it has identified influences of the institutional roles of editors on the information, especially information in news form, being passed on to readers, listeners and viewers. The evolution of the Gatekeepers theory has been charted by Chris Roberts, a Doctoral student at The University of South Carolina in a paper titled Communication Theory and Methodology Division Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication presented in August 2005 at Communication Theory and Methodology Division Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication San Antonio, Texas. Roberts has termed the concept as the vanilla ice cream of mass communication theory. He says- this is so since it may not be everyones favourite, but nearly everyone can tolerate it and while it may have an unremarkable flavour, it serves as a building block for other theory and methodological approaches. In post-war America in 1947, it was Prussian scholar Kurt Lewin who coined the term gatekeeping. He concluded in a study of sweetbreads on Iowa housewives that they are the gatekeepers who control what food enters the channels that ultimately bring it from the garden or super market into the household and onto the dining-room table. Each channel is walled into sections surrounded by gates the decision-making points that determine whether the food will enter the channel to start with, or move to the next section. But there are forces which exert pressure along the way to accept or reject food. He however added that the theory holds not only for food channels but also for the travelling of a news item through certain communication channels in a groupà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Lewin, 1947). It was in the same year 1947 that David Manning White decided to observe how an editor of a newspaper chooses or leaves out news. Aided by a telegraph wire editor Mr Gates for his study on a newspaper titled The Peoria Star, White proposed the flow of communication in 1950 which was later integrated into Lewins theory(Figure-I). The theory was published in Journalism Quarterly, 27. FIGURE I http://www.utwente.nl/cw/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20clusters/Media,%20Culture%20and%20Society/gatekeeping.doc/gatekeeping-1.gif White suggested that a news source has several items some of which are filtered by the organizations editors who act as gatekeepers. The news that thus reaches the audience is selected consciously. However, editors can also publish only what is provided to them by the sources like news wires. This aspect was elaborated by Dr Walter Gieber in 1956 whose dissertation at the University of Wisconsin expanded Whites early study to 16 wire editors. Where Gieber differed from other scholars was that he gave equal importance to the processes surrounding the agents who act as gatekeepers. Chris Roberts outlines that in Giebers theory, these gatekeepers are passive and reactive, unable to do much to influence the copy they receive. A very key factor in the news flow process was overlooked by White which is the organizational influences like work culture, work routines and story deadlines which were also noted by Gieber. The Westley-MacLean model (Figure-II) introduced the idea of gatekeeper C and feedback between the three centres. According to them, C filters some component of the message which is being sent to B. But feedback between the sender and receiver remains all throughout. FIGURE II http://communicationtheory.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/westley-and-macLean%E2%80%99s-model-of-communication-diagram.jpg (Available at: http://communicationtheory.org/westley-and-maclean%E2%80%99s-model-of-communication/) Here, X1 and X2 are news items which reach the client A (media house, reporter) who passes it on to audience B. There is the intervention of C, a gatekeeper who can also receive some news directly (X3, X4). Westley and MacLean have suggested that communication begins when receivers start to give feedback (f) according to their own surroundings. This model was applicable for both interpersonal and mass communication and identified the very important element of feedback despite the presence of a gatekeeper. If we take an example from India, a newspaper reporter might get news and the editor might edit it before publishing. But whatever information reaches the audience is acted upon by them- the thriving Letters to the Editor section, especially in the Hindi press, being a good example of that. But if one talks about gatekeeping, it should be kept in mind that it is not only about the selection and presentation of news but also about gathering of news from various sources. J T McNelly(1959) focused not on editors but also on reporters, who according to him were the first of the multiple gatekeepers(Figure-III). According to him, news can be modified in different ways and by different authorities. FIGURE III C:UserssargamDesktopDocs n FilesThird SemDev CommShowcases-McNelly-and-News-Flow-4.jpg Available at http://www.alanmachinwork.net/Showcases The scenario in contemporary Indian media industry In terms of investment in men and machinery, the Indian media industry has become a corporate structure both in operation and management. And it has witnessed a definite transformation from a mission to a profession. Commercialization of media is almost complete and all sorts of manipulations are being used as are done in the case of product marketing. This has tremendous impact on gatekeeping functions also. It has given rise to many gatekeepers of news and information apart from traditional gatekeeper like editors. Today, there are different powerful gatekeepers who influence the media and their coverage because of either their economic clout or influence. Broadly speaking, the gatekeeping scenario in the Indian media has undergone a change due to three key factors, viz., Cross-media ownership, Corporatization of media, Popularization of social media. Gatekeeping in cross media ownership situation Post the reforms of 1991, the Indian economy has opened up many sectors for private entrepreneurial interest. Since the last two decades of liberalization, the phenomenon of concentration of wealth has been marring the economy. A 2009 study India 2039 an affluent society in one generation funded by the Asian Development Bank has shown that a handful of 50 people (50 billionaires in a country of more than 120 crore) controlled wealth equivalent to 20 per cent of Indias Gross Domestic Product(Available at: http://www.humanrightsinitiative.org/programs/ai/rti/international/laws_papers/india/india_2039_an_affluent_society_in_one_generation.pdf). The corporate world has been able to carve its own huge space in the economic domain of the country in a short span of time. This space has also in a sense intruded into the media in a hegemonic manner. Both in the print and electronic media, the corporate sector has become an investor and a power to reckon with. Quoting a research conducted by Dilip Mandal and R. Anuradha, that has been published in Media Ethics (Oxford University Press, 2011), Paranjoy Guha Thakurta, (member of the committee set up by the Press Council of India to check ethical and legal violations by the media) has elaborated how the boards of directors of a number of media companies now include (or have included in the past) representatives of big corporate entities that are advertisers(Guha Thakurta, Media Ownership Trends in India, The Hoot, July 3, 2012). The board of Jagran Publications has had the Managing Director (MD) of Pantaloon Retail, Kishore Biyani, McDonald Indias MD Vikram Bakshi, and leather-maker Mirza Internationals MD Rashid Mirza; besides the CEO of media consulting firm Lodestar Universal India, Shashidhar Sinha, and the chairman of the real estate firm JLL Meghraj, Anuj Puri. The board of directors of HT Media, publishers of Hindustan Times and Hindustan, has included the former chairman of Ernst You ng K. N. Memani and the chairman of ITC Limited Y C Deveshwar. Joint MD of Bharti Enterprise Rajan Bharti and MD of Anika International Anil Vig are a part of the TV Todays Board of Directors. The board of directors of DB Corp (that publishes the daily, Dainik Bhaskar) includes the head of Piramal Enterprises Group, Ajay Piramal, the MD of Warburg Pincus, Nitin Malhan, and the executive chairman of advertising firm Ogilvy Mather, Piyush Pandey. NDTVs Board of Directors has Pramod Bhasin, President and CEO of the countrys biggest business processing outsourcing company GenPact as a member of its board of directors. The idea behind giving such details is to show the constant overlapping of corporate and citizens interests. News and information published/broadcast was traditionally meant to inform, awaken or entertain people which now has become a tool for publicity, public relation, relationship management and veiled advertising for the corporate firms. They do so through having an i nterest in media houses via investment and ownership. As Guha Thakurta has said, Instead of media houses relying on advertisers to fund quality journalism, the relationship becomes insidiously reversed. Advertisers and corporate units begin to rely on news outlets to further their interests. In 2003, Bennett Coleman Company Limited (publishers of the Times of India and the Economic Times, among other publications) started a paid content service, which enabled them to charge advertisers for coverage of product launches or celebrity-related events. Radiagate and the control of information by the corporate media In late 2010, Open magazine published records of leaked telephonic conversation between corporate lobbyist Nira Radia and influential media persons, politicians and corporate houses which seem to point to a nexus between the three sectors in the appointment of ministers and in important corporate deals. Among the mainstream newspapers in India, newspapers The Hindu and The Pioneer were one of the first to publish the records and carry the story. However, a highly conscious process of selection went into the coverage of what came to be known as Radiagate. Many news publications and news channels did not carry the story at first and the tapes leaked were also allegedly selective. In an article Media ethics: Why we need both panic and a pinch of salt (Tehelka Magazine, Vol 7, Issue 48, Dated December 04, 2010), Shoma Chaudhary has pointed out how the media is under immense pressure while reporting a story. She says that one of the most damaging symptoms in Indian media today is its slav ish relationship with corporate power. Political misconduct is often brought to book, corporate crime almost never. Big business has its tentacles everywhere. Almost all the premier publications and channels The Times of India, Times Now, The Economic Times, CNBC etc come across as compromised in differing percentages, she has stressed. Therefore, even if the editors and reporters wish to play out the role of gatekeepers, they have corporate concerns in mind since the private sector has become a major source of revenue for the media houses. Prominent media houses have a diverse set of people with varying financial interests investing in them and thus proving to be a huge financial support which is how the corporate sector can also be considered a gatekeeper- a force that controls or influences the selection and consequent flow of information. Senior Associate Editor, The Hindu Business Line, Rasheeda Bhagat has discussed the media blackout of the issue pointing out that the TV cha nnels (employing journalists allegedly involved in the scandal) remained silent on the issue for long. (Those Living In Glass Houses, The Hindu Business Line, November 23, 2010). Though the print and electronic media tried to control the information, the traditional role of gatekeeping by the editors or even the new role of gatekeeping by the corporate sector eventually failed when it came to Radiagate. This was due to the alternative of social media which proved to be a powerful tool in mounting pressure on the government to start investigating in the 2G scandal. Face book and Twitter helped people to access opinions of fellow citizens and thinkers while the leaked tapes were also available online on video-sharing websites like YouTube. Advertorials have been another form of corporate intrusion into the business of news and information. They are actually advertisements furthering the commercial interests of a corporate house, a firm or an organisation presented in the manner of a piece of news or an editorial. Bart Pattyn (Media Ethics: Opening Social Dialogue, 2000) says that advertorials employ a language not directly persuasive but more oriented at conveying information about the product. Generally, the editor has no role to play while an advertorial is being carried since it is the advertising department of the media house which decides in this matter. While it is not illegal or unethical to publish or carry them, many experts feel that the concept of advertorials has made media houses compromise on their ethics since they try to avoid conflict of interest between them and the sponsors. The level of investment that the advertisers and sponsors have achieved indicates that they have become the main source of reve nue for media houses. However, Professor J. J. Soundararaj (Try Advertorial to Overcome the Challenges of Commercial Clutter, Excel International Journal of Multidisciplinary Management Studies, Vol.1 Issue 2, November 2011) points out that advertorials are costly. Hence not all firms can afford them. Thus, it is the financially sound organisations that use this method of promotion. Hence, this can be another example of how the corporate sector is acting as a gatekeeper and controlling and selecting what information should reach an audience. Politicians as gatekeepers Several politicians in India today run a news channel or publication. Commenting on this trend, journalist Archna Shukla studies the case of Piccadilly Group, owned by Kartikeya Sharma which manages Hindi newspaper Aaj Samaj and runs news channels under the name of India News. (We also make TV news, The Indian Express, August 19, 2012). Sharma is the son of Congress leader Shri Vinod Sharma. It is said that Sharma senior took a vow to launch his own newspaper and TV channel after he felt that it was media activism that led to his son Manu Sharmas conviction in the Jessica Lal murder case of 1999, Shukla says. In the South India, AIADMKs J Jayalalitha owns Jaya TV while rival DMKs M Karunanidhi owns Kalaignar TV and his nephew Kalanidhi Maran owns Sun TV. Mediapersons have pointed out how they give favourable coverage to the political parties of their owners. Election Commission officials have said that they do not receive complaints about paid news in Tamil Nadu since the party affiliations are already clear. Even if the channels are not owned directly by the politicians, the evil of paid news has hit the Indian media showing how anyone with money can be a gatekeeper. Guha Thakurta has pointed out that many candidates have fixed rates in case they want a newspaper to impart favourable coverage during elections. There have been instances when even the government and its machinery have controlled the flow of information for safety and strategic purposes. Gatekeeping of information can also be beneficial in instances where the media goes overboard with reportage. During the coverage of the 2008 terror attacks in Mumbai, the editors at first went ahead with the complete coverage focusing only on Nariman House and Trident Hotel, completely sidelining the attack on Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus. Television channels broadcast gory images and were also in competition with each other for exclusive footage which interfered with the ongoing army operations. The government and military authorities had to finally intervene to urge the media for a balance and controlled coverage. People as gatekeepers: The rise of social media It is very interesting to note that in areas untouched by technology (like many villages), the tradition of sitting together to discuss the days happenings is strong. Here, the better read people in the village or those who own a radio or television set can gatekeep and let out selective information to fellow villagers. Hence, the audience itself doubles up as a gatekeeper. The same phenomenon can be noticed in areas completely engulfed by technology. India has been witnessing a growing craze for social networking with more than 50 million Indians registered on leading networking site Facebook. The very idea of social media activities like chatting, posting and blogging is the concept of Freedom rather freedom from censorship. A blog is a free platform where people or bloggers themselves are gatekeepers who control information and decide what their fellow netizens will read. A tweet by a celebrity (as a note on social networking site Twitter is called) can be read by anybody followin g the celebrity. The followers can also comment on the tweets and there have been instances of uncontrollable and harsh commenting on scams and scandals on Twitter. Commenting on the social media scenario today, noted filmmaker Shekhar Kapur says: As Newspaper and Media empires fade, Gatekeepers as we know them, are being replaced by Platformers that enable communities to share ideas, thoughts, knowledge, news, between themselves at an unprecedented speeds, letting them transact   and exchange even real goods and services between themselves. Communities will now reject Gate Keepers that thrive on a system that tries to control that flow. Social networking has become a rage precisely because of the free flow of information it allows on an immediate basis. There is no editing authority which can delete or control what a user writes on several websites. As a result, one can also come across inappropriate content online showing how people themselves have the power to gatekeep and decide what can be filtered. In the wake of the recent misuse of social networking websites by groups trying to spread rumours regarding dangers to lives of the residents of the north-eastern states in India, Union Minister for Information Technology Kapil Sibal has called for some regulation to avoid such instances. As a result, a few websites have agreed to share user information with the government authorities. Conclusion The concept of gatekeeping in India has undergone a transformation due to the trend of cross-media ownership, corporatization of the media and increasing popularity of social networking websites. Consequently, the traditional role of gatekeeping by the editors or reporters are now being performed by sponsors and advertisers who influence content selection due to their economic clout and politicians who own news entities or have significant financial holdings in them. A platform where the audience itself can gatekeep is the arena of social networking where the absence of strong censorship allows users to generate the desired content and share it with fellow users. Examples include Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Orkut and others. The Indian authorities have recently called for some kind of regulation in this arena to prevent the misuse of this platform. Disregarding the older concept of gatekeeping, it is now recognized that gatekeeping is exercised at almost every stage in the whole process communicating news. Earlier, due to the lack of space and time the editors used to leave out or ignore so many things but today, in the era of information over flow, the gatekeeping starts from the very first stage i.e. from the place of origin of event. The sources give some information and leave some and so the people who are the source of events act as a gatekeeper; a reporter is a gatekeeper as she might not send the full information to the newsroom or might send biased information and the chain goes on and stops back with the people as the consumers of the news by choosing what to consume and what to leave. So, the earlier notion of editors as the only gatekeeper is no more true. Some exogenous factors like pressure groups and flak (Herman and Chomsky, 1988) are also keeping the gates and mark their presence by pressurizing the media outlet s to stop certain information from being conveyed to the citizens. For an example, Salman Rushdies Satanic Verses received the highest level of criticism by the religious pressure group accusing Rushdie for blasphemy. This not just banned the readers to read this book but also did not allow Rushdie to openly address the public. Not allowing people equal access to information is also a form of gatekeeping. This creates information gap and disparity between the haves and the haves-not of knowledge. In a democratic set up like India, everyone should have the right to equal access to information. For example, the Internet service providers including both private and government provide higher speed at higher prices. Therefore, somebody who cannot afford higher prices cannot have the information. Similarly, the uploading speed provided is much less than the downloading speeds. This again acts as a gate for the citizen journalists who wish to share some important piece of information they have with the world. The power of gatekeepers seems to diminish in a modern information society. The Internet defies the whole notion of a gate and challenges the idea that journalists (or anyone else) can or should limit what passes through it (Shoemaker et al, 2001). The statement is an eye opener for many, who have still not r ealized the power of internet to control the information at various levels, and which is indeed proving out to be real in the current scenario. As after its unparalleled debut in the information sector, it has set a bench mark for its competition, and in a very short span, the internet became one of the most viewed and dependable source and controller of information, with a global consumer base at its disposal, and hence a very powerful gatekeeper.

The Burden Of Mental Disorders Health And Social Care Essay

Worldwide, the load of mental upsets is immense and at least comparable to the load caused by many terrible physical diseases [ 1 ] . In the WHO Global Burden of Disease undertaking it was estimated that 50 % of all Disability Adjusted Life Years ( DALY ‘s ) in the 15-44 old ages old are due to psychiatry-related conditions [ 2 ] . Recently, depressive upsets were projected to rank 2nd on a list of 15 major diseases in footings of load of disease in 2030 [ 3 ] . In malice of the many available effectual interventions, they have limited possible to cut down the entire load of mental unwellness [ 4 ] . It has been estimated that the maximal decrease of the entire load of mental disease that can be achieved by intervention in optimum scenes is merely 40 % [ 5 ] . Therefore, bar of mental upsets is indispensable. An extra statement for beef uping the function of preventative psychopathology in public wellness is the fact that at the population degree, a significant portion of the costs are caused by new instances. The new instances account for 39.2 % of the costs at the population degree [ 6 ] . Unfortunately, there are soon few possibilities for the primary or selective bar of mental disease in the non-referred population. Because grownup mental diseases have their beginnings early in life [ 7 ] , primary bar can be most effectual if started early in childhood, or even before. Indeed, bar of psychosocial jobs may get down before birth.1.4 Gevolgen new wave psychopathologie tijdens de zwangerschapThere is strong grounds that, in line with Barker ‘s â€Å" foetal beginnings of grownup disease † hypothesis [ a ] , an inauspicious mental province of a female parent during gestation is an of import and modifiable hazard factor for psychosocial jobs in her kids. The nexus between prenatal maternal negative emotions and behavioural and emotional ( ‘psychosocial ‘ ) jobs in the progeny has been demonstrated in legion carnal surveies and, more late, in worlds. Two recent reappraisals summarize the consequences of this research [ 8 ] [ 9 ] . Numerous surveies evidenced that there is a positive association between prenatal anxiousness or depression in the female parent, and cognitive, behavioural and emotional jobs in the kid. For illustration, in a big survey ( N=7448 ) prenatal anxiousness of the female parent was related to behavioural or emotional jobs of 4-year-old kids, independent of the female parent ‘s postpartum depression or anxiousness [ 10 ] . Anxiety in gestation has been related to delayed mental and motor development, independent of the female parent ‘s postpartum emphasis and depression degrees [ 11 ] . The inauspicious effects seem to be permanent: higher anxiousness degrees of the female parents early in gestation were related to an addition in ADHD and other projecting jobs in their 8-9 twelvemonth old kids [ 12 ] . An addition in criminalism in the male progeny of female parents who suffered antenatal depression was observed by Maki et al [ 13 ] . Davis and colleagues demonstrated that maternal antenatal anxiousness and depression were associated with an unfavorable disposition, i.e. infant negative responsiveness which in bend is related to behavioural suppression and societal anxiousness [ 14 ] . Chung et Al found that depression in gestation is associated with growing deceleration, premature birth and more extradural analgesia during bringing. Children of these adult females are more likely to be admitted on a NICU [ 15 ] . Although the mechanisms have non been to the full elucidated, the emphasis endocrine hydrocortisone, which besides seems to play a function in grownup abnormal psychology, has been proposed as the primary biological go-between [ 9 ] . Elevated maternal hydrocortisone degrees might take to cut down development of the kid. LeWinn and others found that higher maternal hydrocortisone degrees during gestation are associated with decreased childhood IQ [ 16 ] . Other mechanisms such as intoxicant and nicotine ingestion in gestation [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] and the effects of the postpartum mental status of the female parent ( e.g. with effects for suckling [ 20 ] [ 21 ] ) may be runing every bit good [ 22 ] . Whatever the existent mechanisms involved are, there is soon convincing grounds that kids whose female parents suffered from anxiousness or depression during gestation constitute a high hazard group for behavioural and emotional jobs. Early designation and intervention, and sooner even bar of the maternal mental wellness jobs would assist to forestall the same type of jobs in the progeny.1.5 Antenatale depressieUntil pubescence, rates of depression are approximately equal in male childs and misss, but from adolescence on, misss suffer about twice every bit frequently of depression than male childs, a rate which remains changeless until climacteric, after which it bit by bit declines [ 23 ] [ 24 ] . During gestation around 10-20 % of all adult females are enduring from depression or anxiousness, a prevalence that is basically similar to the prevalence outside gestation [ 25 ] [ 26 ] [ 27 ] [ 28 ] [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] [ 32 ] . Known hazard factors for prenatal depression are immature maternal age [ 26 ] , being multipara with a history of obstetric complication [ 33 ] , cohabitating [ 34 ] , low societal support [ 35 ] [ 36 ] , major life events [ 37 ] , low income [ 38 ] and a history of physical and/or sexual maltreatment [ 37 ] [ 40 ] [ 41 ] . Niet gebruikte refnrs: [ 39 ] [ 43 ] [ 45 ]1.6 Antenatale angststoornisAlthough there is a batch more known about depression during gestation, anxiousness upsets are the most common psychiatric upsets in grownups. Anxiety upsets have a 12-month prevalence estimated at 18 % , and are more frequently seen in adult females [ 42 ] . A recent reappraisal found that anxiousness upsets are common during the perinatal period, with rates of generalised anxiousness upset being higher during the perinatal period ( 8,5 % in the 3rd trimester ) than in the general population [ 44 ] . Because depression and anxiousness often co-occur [ 46 ] , it is likely that adult females who report depressive symptoms during gestation besides experience symptoms of anxiousness. Furthermore, anxiousness upsets are common in the absence of depression, peculiarly in adult females [ 47 ] , and the average age of oncoming of many anxiousness upsets is at a child-bearing age [ 48 ] . Harmonizing to Moss et Al, hazard factors for anxiousness may be similar to those of depression in pregnant adult females but this requires farther research [ 49 ] .1.7 Socio-economische positieThe socio-economic place ( SEP ) is traditionally defined as â€Å" the comparative place of a household or person on a hierarchal societal construction, based on their entree to or command over wealth, prestigiousness and power † [ 50 ] . Different mensurable facets of SEP are normally used in research, such as educational degree, occupational position and income. Educational degree represents cognition, a ccomplishments, attitudes and values that can act upon health-related behaviour. Occupational position is an index of working conditions, power and wellness. Income is associated with material wellbeing and ability to devour goods and services, required for a healthy life [ 51 ] [ 52 ] . These different facets of SEP are known to be positively correlated [ 53 ] . A low SEP seems to be a hazard factor for anxiousness symptoms after gestation [ 54 ] , although other surveies found no important association between composite SEP and depressive symptoms during gestation [ 55 ] [ 56 ] [ 57 ] [ 58 ] [ 59 ] . In contrast, in a recent reappraisal, Lancaster et Al. presented that both a lower educational degree as a low income have a little association with depression during gestation, but non important in their multivariate analyses [ B ] . Unemployment was non even significantly associated with depression during gestation in bivariate analysis [ B ] .1.8 Life eventsHarmonizing to Grant et Al and Evans, the chronic psychological emphasis ensuing from a low SEP may be associated with a high exposure to life stressors [ hundred ] [ vitamin D ] . What is known about the association of major negative life events and anxiety/depression during gestation?1.9 Doel new wave dot onderzoekHypothesis Low socio-economic place is associated with anxiousness and depression during gestation and this association is modified by major negative life events.Hoofdstuk 2. Methoden2.1 StudiedesignThe P5D-study. The Prediction of anxiousness and Depression during Pregnancy and the Postnatal Period ; the function of Personality ( P5D ) -study is an experimental longitudinal survey in the Dutch primary obstetric attention. The survey aims to develop a hazard mark based on established hazard factors and personality traits, to foretell ante- and postpartum anxiousness and depression at the first consult at the accoucheuses pattern. The P5D-study was approved by the Medical Ethical Committee ( Dutch: Medisch-Ethische Toetsingscommissie ( METc ) ) of the University Medical Center Groningen, the Netherlands.2.2 Studiepopulatie en dataverzamelingData was collected at multiple assessment minutes: ( 1 ) at baseline: at the first or 2nd consult at the obstetrics pattern ( largely at the terminal of the first trimester ) ; ( 2 ) at 24 hebdomads of gestation ; ( 3 ) at 36 hebdomads of gestation ; ( 4 ) 6 hebdomads postpartum ; ( 5 ) 6 months postpartum ; ( 6 ) 1 twelvemonth postpartum. The present survey involves informations from the baseline appraisal of the P5D-cohort, which ran from April 2010 to January 2011, although the inclusion still continues. Sample choice concerned 35 obstetrics patterns in both rural and urban countries in the four Northern states of the Netherlands: Groningen, Friesland, Drenthe and Overijssel. All adult females subscribing up at these obstetrics patterns could come in the survey. The lone adult females who were excluded from engagement were adult females who had no command of the Dutch linguistic communication. The included adult females received an informational bundle about the survey. This bundle contained an information missive, an informed consent, the first questionnaires and a stamped self-addressed envelope. Midwifes handed the bundle to the adult female while explicating and stressing the relevancy of this survey. When adult females agreed to take part, they filled in the printed questionnaires, every bit good as the informed consent and their personal information ( e.g. name, reference, telephone figure and email reference ) at place and sent them to us in the stamped self-addressed envelope . When we received the printed questionnaire, accompanied by the informed consent and the personal information of the participant, we used the supplied electronic mail reference to direct the username and watchword to entree the online questionnaires. Participants were instructed to reach us in instance they had no entree to the cyberspace at any clip during the survey. In response to these state of affairss ( n=3, 0.4 % ) , we sent the extra questionnaires in print to their postal reference, once more accompanied by a stamped self-addressed envelope.2.3 VragenlijstenQuestionnaires in print. The undermentioned questionnaires were handed in print at the obstetrics patterns: General information, dwelling of the gestational age and the day of the month of make fulling in the questionnaire, which we used to cipher the maternal age and the gestational age at any minute ; The Spielberger State Trait Anxiety Inventory ( STAI ) [ 60 ] to measure the degree of anxiousness. We used the six-item short-form, because the full signifier would be inappropriate in the position of high figure of questionnaires. Furthermore, the six-item short-form of the STAI produces tonss similar to those obtained utilizing the full-form [ 60 ] . The participant had to bespeak how they felt at the minute of appraisal, giving one of the four replies ( non at all ( 1 ) , slightly ( 2 ) , reasonably so ( 3 ) , really ( 4 ) ) . The six statements are: I feel unagitated, I feel nervous, I feel disquieted ( dying ) , I am relaxed, I feel satisfied, I am disquieted. The cut-off mark for an at least moderate degree of anxiousness is a†°?13 in this short-form [ 60 ] ; The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale ( EPDS ) [ 61 ] to measure the degree of depressive symptoms. Although the EPDS is developed to measure after gestation, the questionnaire is besides dependable to measure depressive symptoms during gestation [ 62 ] . The 10 points are: I am able to express joy and see the amusing side of things, I look frontward with enjoyment to things, I blame myself unnecessarily when things go incorrect, I am dying or worried for no good ground, I feel frightened or panicked for no really good ground, Thingss are acquiring on top of me, I am so unhappy that I have had trouble sleeping, I feel sad or suffering, I am so unhappy that I have been shouting, The idea of harming myself occurred to me. The cut-off mark for an at least moderate degree of depression is a†°?12 [ 61 ] ; An adjusted Negative Life Events Questionnaire ( NLEQ ) [ 65 ] , to buttockss major negative life events. We make a differentiation between different periods in life: in the period until the age of 16 ; between the age of 16 and until 2 old ages before gestation ; in the 2 old ages before gestation. The mentioned life events are: divorce ( of a parent, self or kid ) , new relationship, traveling, long-run and/or terrible unwellness ( of a parent, sibling, spouse, ego, kid or another of import individual ( e.g. friend, in-laws, a confidential adviser ) ) , decease ( of a parent, sibling, spouse, kid or another of import individual ) , terrible psychiatric jobs ( of a parent, sibling, spouse, kid, self or another of import individual ) , suicide effort ( of a parent, sibling, spouse, kid, self or another of import individual ) , household force, intoxicant or drugs abuse within the household or the relationship, being victim of a offense, being victim of a terrible accident, being vict im of sexual maltreatment, being victim of assault, holding an unwanted gestation ; Online questionnaire. The undermentioned questionnaire was administered online: Socio-economic place ( SEP, based on educational degree ( self and spouse ) , business ( self and spouse ) and one-year gross household income ) ) was assessed utilizing a questionnaire based on the Leidsche Rijn questionnaire ( Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, Utrecht ) [ 68 ] .2.4 Statistische analyseAlthough P5D contains all above-named questionnaires, merely the STAI ( anxiousness ) , EPDS ( depression ) , SEP ( socio-economic place ) and the adjusted NLEQ ( major negative life events ) questionnaires were necessary to prove our present hypotheses. First, we calculated descriptive statistics for the STAI and EPDS tonss, every bit good as for the five indexs of SEP ( educational degree ( self and spouse ) , business ( self and spouse ) and one-year household income ) and major negative life events. Second, we assessed the correlativity between the STAI and EPDS tonss, †¦ We averaged the indexs of SEP after standardisation of educational degree ( both ego and spouse ) and one-year household income ( z-scores ) . The lowest 25 % , intermediate 50 % and highest 25 % of the tonss were considered to stand for severally low, intermediate and high SEP. The degree of significance was set at 0.05, reversible. Datas were analyzed utilizing PASW statistics 18.Hoofdstuk 3. ResultatenThe present survey involves informations from the baseline appraisal of the P5D-cohort, which ran from April 2010 to January 2011. A sum of 863 participants filled in a questionnaire, but 115 participants ( 13.3 % ) were excluded because they did non make full in the STAI short-form. Exclusion due to non-mastery of the Dutch linguistic communication was non registered.Descriptive statisticsAnxiety. All of the 748 included participants ( 100 % ) filled in the STAI short-form. From these 748 participants, 108 ( 14.4 % ) scored above the cut-off value ( STAI a†°?13 ) . A histogram with the frequences of the STAI tonss is presented in figure 1. The average STAI mark was 9.96 ( SD = 2.68 ) . Figure 1 Histogram with the frequences of the STAI tonss. The cut-off mark for an at least moderate degree of anxiousness is STAI a†°?13: Depression. From the 748 included participants, 743 ( 99.5 % ) filled in the EPDS signifier. From these 743 participants, 31 ( 4.2 % ) scored above the cut-off value ( EPDS a†°?12 ) . A histogram with the frequences of the EPDS tonss is presented in figure 2. The average EPDS mark was 4.67 ( SD = 3.59 ) . Figure 2 Histogram with the frequences of the EPDS tonss. Cut-off value for an at least moderate degree of depression is EPDS a†°?12: Correlation between anxiousness and depression The correlativity between anxiousness and depression tonss was strong: R = 0.72, P & lt ; 0.01 ( Pearson ‘s trial, two-tailed significance ) . A spread secret plan is presented in figure 3. Figure 3 Scatter secret plan, stand foring the correlativity between the STAI and EPDS tonss: Socio-economic place. From the 748 included participants, 342 ( 45.7 % ) filled in all questionnaires about SEP. The descriptive statistics of the assessed indexs of SEP are presented in table 1 ( educational degree ) , table 2 ( occupational position ) and table 3 ( household income ) . Table 1 Descriptive statistics of educational degree: SelfN ( % )SpouseN ( % )Primary instruction ( basisschool, speciaal onderwijs ) 0 8 ( 1.9 ) Low-level secondary instruction ( LBO-opleiding ) 1 ( 0.2 ) 16 ( 3.8 ) Middle-level secondary instruction ( bijv. MAVO, VBO ) 17 ( 4.0 ) 27 ( 6.4 ) Vocational preparation ( MBO-opleiding ) 145 ( 33.9 ) 182 ( 43.3 ) High-level secondary instruction ( HAVO, VWO, Gymnasium ) 29 ( 6.8 ) 20 ( 4.8 ) Professional instruction ( HBO-opleiding ) 168 ( 39.3 ) 122 ( 29.0 ) University ( WO-opleiding ) 68 ( 15.9 ) 45 ( 10.7 ) Entire 428 420 Table 2 Descriptive statistics of occupational position: SelfN ( % )SpouseN ( % )Yes 384 ( 89.5 ) 412 ( 96.9 ) No 45 ( 10.5 ) 13 ( 3.1 ) Entire 429 425 Table 3 Descriptive statistics of household income ( gross, in euro ‘s per twelvemonth ) :N ( % )0 – 14,999 14 ( 4.0 ) 15,000 – 30,999 58 ( 16.4 ) 31,000 – 59,999 207 ( 58.5 ) 60,000 – 89,999 60 ( 19.9 ) 90.000 or more 15 ( 4.2 ) Entire 354 Correlation between different facets of socio-economic place. The correlativities between the five mensural facets of SEP are presented in table 4.Literatuurlijst1. Ormel J, Petukhova M, Chatterji S, et Al. 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Free philosophy Essay

In philosophy, the â€Å"self† is used to refer to the ultimate locus of personal identity, the agent and the knower involved in each person’s actions and cognitions. The notion of the self has traditionally raised several philosophical questions. First, there are questions about the nature and very existence of the self. Is the self a material or immaterial thing? Is the self even a real thing or rather a merely nominal object? Second, is the self the object of a peculiar form of introspective knowledge, and if so, what does this tell about its ultimate nature? Third, what is the relation between the nature of the self and the linguistic phenomena of self-reference, such as the use of the first-person pronoun ‘I’? In this course, we will investigate these and related questions with a special focus on the issue of the unity of the self. In the first half of the course, particular attention will be devoted to recent works on the relation between the nature of the self, the unity of agency and the process of self-constitution by authors such as Korsgaard, Velleman, Dennett†¦ In the second half of the course, we will discuss some of the peculiar features of self-knowledge and consider whether the idea of self-constitution can shed light on them. The self does not really exist as something truly real because: it is not available to introspection (Hume); it is not a thing (Existentialists); it is a soluble fish in a sea of general meanings or representations (postmodernists); and/or it cannot be found in the brain or its activity (neurophilosophers). There are many other lines of attack but these examples are sufficient to illustrate what is wrong with these autocides: they are looking for the wrong kind of entity or in the wrong place or both.

Noble Gases Properties

The right column of the periodic table contains seven elements known as the inert or noble gases. Learn about the properties of the noble gas group of elements. Key Takeaways: Noble Gas Properties The noble gases are group 18 on the periodic table, which is the column of elements on the right side of the table.There are seven noble gas elements: helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, radon, and oganesson.Noble gases are the least reactive chemical elements. They are nearly inert because the atoms have a full valence electron shell, with little tendency to accept or donate electrons to form chemical bonds. Location and List  of the Noble Gases  on the Periodic Table The noble gases, also known as the inert gases or rare gases, are located in Group VIII or International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) group 18 of the periodic table. This is the column of elements along the far right side of the periodic table.  This group is a subset of the nonmetals.  Collectively, the elements are also called the helium group or the neon group. The noble gases are: Helium (He)Neon  (Ne)Argon (Ar)Krypton (Kr)Xenon (Xe)Radon (Rn)Oganesson (Og) With the exception of oganesson, all of these elements are gases at ordinary temperature and pressure. There havent been enough atoms produced of oganesson to know its phase for certain, but most scientists predict it will be a liquid or solid. Both radon and oganesson consist only of radioactive isotopes. Noble Gas Properties The noble gases are relatively nonreactive. In fact, they are the least reactive elements on the periodic table.  This is because they have a complete valence shell. They have little tendency to gain or lose electrons. In 1898, Hugo Erdmann coined the phrase noble gas to reflect the low reactivity of these elements, in much the same way as the noble metals are less reactive than other metals.  The noble gases have high ionization energies and negligible electronegativities. The noble gases have low boiling points and are all gases at room temperature. Summary of Common Properties Fairly nonreactiveComplete outer electron or valence shell (oxidation number 0)High ionization energiesVery low electronegativitiesLow boiling points (all monatomic  gases at room temperature)No color, odor, or flavor under ordinary conditions (but may form colored liquids and solids)NonflammableAt low pressure, they will conduct electricity and fluoresce Uses of the Noble Gases The noble gases are used to form inert atmospheres, typically for arc welding, to protect specimens, and to deter chemical reactions. The elements are used in lamps, such as neon lights and krypton headlamps, and in lasers. Helium is used in balloons, for deep-sea diving air tanks,  and to cool superconducting magnets. Misconceptions About the Noble Gases Although the noble gases have been called the rare gases, they arent particularly uncommon on Earth or in the universe. In fact, argon is the 3rd or 4th most abundant gas in the atmosphere  (1.3 percent by mass or 0.94 percent by volume), while neon, krypton, helium, and xenon are notable trace elements.​ For a long time, many people believed the noble gases to be completely nonreactive and unable to form chemical compounds. Although these elements dont form compounds readily, examples of molecules containing xenon, krypton, and radon have been found. At high pressure, even helium, neon, and argon participate in chemical reactions. Sources of the Noble Gases Neon, argon, krypton, and xenon all are found in air and are obtained by liquefying it and performing fractional distillation. The major source of helium is from the  cryogenic separation of natural gas. Radon, a radioactive noble gas, is produced from the  radioactive decay of heavier elements, including radium, thorium, and uranium. Element 118 is a man-made radioactive element, produced by striking a target with accelerated particles. In the future, extraterrestrial sources of noble gases may be found. Helium, in particular, is more abundant on larger planets than it is on Earth. Sources Greenwood, N. N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Oxford:Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-3365-4.Lehmann, J (2002). The Chemistry of Krypton. Coordination Chemistry Reviews. 233–234: 1–39. doi:10.1016/S0010-8545(02)00202-3Ozima, Minoru; Podosek, Frank A. (2002). Noble Gas Geochemistry. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-80366-7.Partington, J. R. (1957). Discovery of Radon. Nature. 179 (4566): 912. doi:10.1038/179912a0Renouf, Edward (1901). Noble gases. Science. 13 (320): 268–270.