Women in Sports 19th and 20th Century

Jen Pearlstein December 2, 2010 Kin 305 Women in Sports 19th and 20th Century Women’s participation in sports has changed over the centuries. In ancient times, men dominated societies. Women were viewed as the caretaker, a provider for life. Women who did participate were criticized and were thought of as threatening. In 18th century America, women were considered inferior to men because of the belief that women are the weaker sex. A woman’s purpose in life was to take care of the house, children, and husband.When they did want to participate in recreational sport, they need to be able to negotiate with men and with other women because societies did not make it easy for women to participate. For example, there was a woman who wanted to go sailing, but to do so she needed to deal with the owner of the boat, her husband and a neighboring couple, who was to accompany her, to do so. By the 19th century, there was a cultural shift for women. Women became frustrated with thei r role in society as house -keepers and caretakers and wanted to experience more with their life.They wanted to pursue educational and athletic opportunities to expand their role outside the home. At that time, however, there was opposition towards women participating in sports and receiving an education because they believed it would cause damage to their reproductive organs. Also, it was believed that sport developed manliness, a trait women should not process. But when women were given an education, it was shown that they could handle the ability to endure rigors of education, which helped them form a sense of independence and help provide athletic opportunities.Because of these growing opportunities, exercise for women became very popular and gained credibility. Catherine Beecher was one influential person in regards to physical education for women. She and Dioclesian Lewis developed the 1st women physical education programs to promote women’s health. They developed what is known as calisthenics, which is similar to Pilates. Colleges like, Wellesley College, started to require calisthenics and sports as part of their curriculum.Among the wealthy, outdoor activities such as archery, tennis, and golf became creditable and evolved into national associations, which sponsored the first national championships for women in those sports. Senda Berenson’s introduction of basketball to women in 1892 caused coeducational colleges, women’s colleges, and other schools to organize women’s teams across the United States. The three women who plotted the initial course of physical education and athletic competitions were Blanche M Thrilling, Mabel Lee, and Agnes Wayman.They were the leaders of women’s participation in athletics. However, Thrilling did provide the most leadership of the group. She organized a meeting to discuss the participation of women in sport. During this meeting the Athletic Conference of American College Women (CWA) was formed. However, they did not support the intercollegiate athletics for women. The reason why they opposed to intercollegiate athletics was because it led to professionalism, it was expensive, required coaches, and it led to nerve fatigue according to the organization.Because of the opposition of intercollegiate athletics for women, a way for them to compete against another school was through play days or sport days. Three or more colleges would meet for competition and would divide themselves up into teams without the school colors. This was the only form of intercollegiate competition that was available for women. These play day and sport days caused an increase in the involvement of women in sporting events.This led to the formation of organizations like the national committee on Women’s Sports, to provide rules and standards for athletic participation for women and girls. The AAU, Amateur Athletic Union, which was under the control of men, took control over women†™s athletics. This stirred up conflict amongst physical educators and other leaders like, Lou Henry Hoover, Blanche Thrilling, and Agnes Wayman who opposed the AAU control and wanted women to govern the organization not men.They were against it because â€Å" only women could understand the psychological, motivational, and physiological need for women. † (Costa & Guthrie, 91) Lou Henry Hoover was the leader of the National Amateur Athletic Federation, which was an organization that supported sport for everyone. She wanted to have a separate Women’s division because of the different ideal standards of women’s sport; and so was formed the women’s division of the NAAF. This organization set standards for women’s competition and encouraged them to participate in both school and non-school events.There still was a belief that women were too frail physically and mentally to participate in intense competition like Olympics. However, in 1932, Mildred â⠂¬Å" Babe† Didrikson disproved this belief by winning two Olympic gold medals and one silver medal in track and field. She had also won every golf tournament she competed in. Her great victories influenced the acceptance of higher- level competition, but there were still limitations due to the bias that sport build manliness, and therefore, women shouldn’t participate because it would strip their femininity.Because of discrimination, women did not have as much financial support and training opportunities as men did. It was not until the 1960’s, during the feminist movement, that women fought for equal rights. This caused a great influence for women and sports. There was the approval of inclusion of intercollegiate sport and the establishment of national championship for golf, gymnastics, track and field, badminton, swimming, diving, volleyball and basketball. But what really caused a growth of women’s athletics, was the result of Title IX of the Educationa l Amendment Act of 1972.This law was passed to eliminate sex discrimination in sports. This act provides equal opportunities for finances, coaching, and facilities. There was much growth of women’s athletics from ancient times to today. Even though you can still notice gender biases amongst women’s athletics since men’s sport are still more popular than the women’s, there are more opportunities and more organizations sponsoring women’s involvement and less discrimination than before.References Costa, Margaret D, & Guthrie, Sharon D. ( 1994). Women and Sport: Interdisciplinary Perspectives. USA: D. Margaret Costa and Sharon R. Guthriex Hutchens, Lisa C. (1998). Gender Equity Collegiate Sports: The Role of Athletic Associations. Initiatives (Washington D. C),v. 58 no. 4. Retrieved from File:///Users/Jen/Downloads/HWWilsonRecords. html Metchikoff, Robert A. (2010) A History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education From Ancient Civilizations to t he Modern World. Boston, MA: McGraw- Hill.

Assignment 3 Essay

In the rapidly evolving global marketplace in which outsourcing is ubiquitous, organizations need to be vigilant in their management of risk. Enterprise Risk Management (ERM) is a growing paradigm in which business leaders seek to effectively identify, mitigate, and manage risks across all aspects of the business as a whole. The ERM model classifies business risk into seven distinct, but inter-related categories: 1) strategic market risks, 2) operating risks, 3) finance risks, 4) human capital risks, 5) Information Technology (IT) risks, 6) legal risks, and 7) reputation risks. (Beasley, Bradford, and Pagach, 2004) A proposed outsourcing of any business process needs to carefully evaluate how the proposed change may create, increase, or reduce risks in each of these business areas. This paper will examine a proposed change from a legacy payroll system to an outsourced solution and evaluate the costs, benefits, and risks of the proposed change. Additionally, it will suggest how to effectively manage such a transition. COSTS AND BENEFITS When considering the costs versus benefits of a business decision, both costs and benefits can be categorized as either direct or indirect. Direct costs refers to those activities that require a quantifiable and foreseeable outlay of the organization’s assets. Indirect costs, however, refer to potential costs that may arise. Direct benefits refers to those activities that either increase revenue or reduce cost. As with direct costs, direct benefits can be easily quantified. Likewise, indirect benefits are more difficult to foresee and quantify. Following is a cost-benefits analysis matrix representative of the proposed payroll outsourcing project. Direct Indirect Benefits Revenue Enhancements Cost Reductions Reduction in man-hours Increased efficiency Avoidance of noncompliance fines and penalties Costs Implementation costs Vendor fees Service agreement fees Disruption to payroll activity during transition ENTERPRISE RISK MAMAGEMENT Using the ERM model as a guide, we can identify risks associated with the proposed transition across multiple business areas. Outsourcing the organization payroll functions has the potential to expose it to finance, human capital, and legal risks. A single vendor mistake, such as miscalculation of tax deductions has the potential for an exponentially negative effect on the organization’s bottom line, the morale, and potential loss of, the employee workforce, and legal compliance with local, state and federal regulations. Tim Stuhldreher stresses that extreme care must be given when choosing a payroll vendor. (Stuhldreher, 2012) Not only should potential vendors be thoroughly researched and vetted, a continuous process evaluation should be put into force to identify, limit, and guard against unintended risk. PROJECT MANAGEMENT There are many tools which project managers have at their disposal to ensure that a project stays on schedule, within budget, and within scope as well as produces intended outcomes. Common among these management tools are the Gantt chart, the performance evaluation and review technique (or PERT), and the critical path method (or CPM). Each of these scheduling and management techniques has a unique focus as well as certain limitations. A Gantt chart is a horizontal bar chart which identifies the tasks which are to be completed within the project and provides a timeline for their completion. A Gantt chart for the proposed payroll outsourcing project would have as it individual tasks formation of a vendor selection committee, selection of a payroll vendor, development of a data transfer protocol, system testing, and personnel training, and establishing a go live date. These individual milestones provide the parameters of the project’s scope, and the Gantt chart develops a schedule for completion of these milestones. One significant advantage of a Gantt chart is its simplicity. By providing a graphical representation of the tasks and timelines, management can easily understand, and gauge, the scheduling and completion rate of the project. A Gantt chart, however, is limited in that its primary focus is the project’s scheduling, and it is inflexible to developing changes that may evolve during the project. Also, while it does identify the tasks that are milestones within the project, it does not illustrate any interdependencies among those tasks. The PERT technique attempts to deal with the uncertainties to which Gantt charts are inflexible, and allowing for uncertainty is the major advantage of PERT. (Davis, 1966) PERT also identifies dependencies among project tasks, thus provide for a more efficient estimation of project completion time. PERT relies on multiple estimates to factor in scheduling variations due to uncertainty. In doing so, the thing that makes it advantageous over Gantt charts also is the cause for its disadvantage. PERT charts are significantly more complex than Gantt charts so managers may have difficulty interpreting and understanding them in the context of the entire project. The critical path method (CPM) also illustrates dependencies within project activities, but CPM seeks to identify the significance of the activities and their inter-relatedness. CPM seeks to compress completion time and mitigate risks inherent in the relation of tasks to each other. In addition to the advantage of showing dependencies, CPM more clearly illustrates the impacts of scheduling revisions. As with PERT, though, the added level of detail also presents disadvantages. The larger the project, and the more tasks, the more convoluted CPM becomes with dependency paths. CPM is also a bit myopic – it has a narrow focus on the dependency paths within the project, and it does not address resource allocation. The aforementioned project management tools all are useful for managing the scheduling and duration of a project. Project managers must also evaluate whether the project is delivering the intended outcome. Such evaluation should not only occur at the terminal end of a project, it should be a continued process throughout the life of the project. (Zofi, 2012) Additionally, employee morale and perception needs to be taken into consideration when implementing a change. This is especially true when it comes to outsourcing business functions. Elmuti, Grunewald, and Abebe observed that, consequent to outsourcing strategies, employees report lower levels of job satisfaction, lower levels of organizational commitment, and higher intentions to quit. (Elmuti, Grunewald, and Abebe, 2010) It is human, and organizational, nature to resist and be skeptical of change, particularly when a major business function that had previous been done in-house is outsourced. A proactive project management plan will anticipate and address employee resistance. Organizations considering an outsourcing strategy would be well served to openly and actively communicate with their employees the reasons for, and impact of the potential change while welcoming and encouraging questions and feedback from them. The more the employee base can be involved in affecting, and buy into change, the less their resistance may be. References Beasley, Mark, Bradford, Marianne, and Pagach, Don â€Å"Outsourcing? At Your Own Risk† Strategic Finance (July 2004), pp. 23-29 Davis, P. M. â€Å"From Scientific Management to Pert-An Evolution† Nebraska Journal of Economics and Business (1966), pp. 34-45 Elmuti, Dean, Grunewald, Julian, and Abebe, Dereje â€Å"Consequences of Outsourcing Strategies on Employee Quality of Work Life, Attitudes, and Performance† Journal of Business Strategies vol. 27, no. 2 (2010), pp. 178-203 Stuhldreher, Tim â€Å"Payroll complexity leads to outsourcing† Central Penn Business Journal (June 22, 2012), pp. 17-18 Zofi, Yael â€Å"Getting Deliverables Out the Door† Industrial Engineer (July 2012), pp. 35-40

Advertising and the construction of Violent White Masculinity Essay

The article â€Å"Advertising and the construction of Violent White Masculinity† points to the controversy of violence and media. It emphasizes that the mainstream debate about media and violence does not emphasis or analyze the most important aspect, namely gender. Katz states that the media illustrates a wrong image of individuals committing crime by calling them ‘youth’ crimes or ‘kids’ love. He believes however that the reason why crime is committed 90% by males is due to the masculinity emphasized in our society. He also mentions that there is lack of attention on criminals from majority groups such as Whites but an emphasis by crime conducted by minority groups. The article suggests that research has avoided to explicitly specify the relationship between masculinity and violent behavior by white men has been avoided in research.Katz believes to be able to illustrate some ways to display the hegemonic construction of masculinity that is present i n mainstream magazine ads and how these ads help to normalize violent male behavior. Katz suggests that one way violence is normalized is through the movie industry which shows white males engaging in violent actions without being depicted as villains. Moreover, they are regarded as heroes. The boom of the movie industry collided with the instability that was created economically for the White middle-class population. The heroes of the movie industry served as role models enabling the male white population to gain stability with masculine power through size and strength. According to Katz the physical body was the only way to obtain dominance and control for those who did not have economic resources to achieve manhood. Katz mentions another way our society tries to normalize violence in the white middle class, namely through advertisements. As Katz writes the ads are full of depictions of dangerous looking men. He points out the bidirectional relationship between advertisements and other socially accepted events such as sports and movies. Advertisements are filled with dangerous looking violent sports men or movie stars and on the other hand the movies or sports events display ads containing the same violent men, enhancing the impact these ads have on the white middle class. The other reason why the media exhibits the violent man is due to the decline of gender differences. Differences between males and females became more rigid. Men needed a way to differ from women, this was possible with becoming more identical with violent behavior. This is where violence becomes justified especially  against women as only a means to represent masculinity.Katz examines further the nature of ads regarding violence and masculinity. As he writes there are specific premises that are represented in ads about masculinity and violence. The first one is the notion that violence is genetically programmed male behavior. This notion is justified by ads showing historical events that were lead by powerful and violent and dangerous men. Some ads also show scenarios that involve violence against other ethnic groups or women. The second premise is concerned with the military and sports that are another source of masculinity. Uniformed soldiers and players are used in different kinds of ads. Using athletes or soldiers for these products, advertising creates the idea that using the advertised products will not decrease masculinity. The third point is the identification of muscularity with masculinity. Muscles are equated masculinity and power. Physical fitness becomes a major way for white men to keep their masculinity. Finally there is the notion of heroic actions being equal to violent masculinity. Movies play a very important role in illustrating this equation. One other significant point is that movies no only justify violence but also glorify violence.

Discuss the beliefs in the supernatural in any of the selections in Essay

Discuss the beliefs in the supernatural in any of the selections in this section. In what ways would you consider these beliefs - Essay Example They believe everything looks supernatural until we explore it and prove it scientifically. According to them everything works in a methodical scientific way we just need to be technically advanced to understand it. Whereas those who belief in supernatural things accept the existence of supernatural things beyond their control. They actually find it magical and fanciful. Super natural belief system Every society has its own set of superstitions and super natural belief system. The belief about the extent of control over social and physical environment and over things varies from society to society. There are and will always be things which can be explained scientifically and whose results are very predictable e.g. with increase in disposable income our expenditure increases, two and two will make four etc. But we cannot deny the fact that there are things in life and around us which are beyond reasoning (Ferraro). For example during earth quake some of the houses are devastated while others remain unharmed. Some people despite their unhealthy habits remain healthy while conscious people get contaminated with all sorts of viruses. Some safe drivers encounter lethal accidents while rash drivers go luck unscathed. To explain the unexplainable people rely on things like magic, sorcery, witchcraft, religion, astronomy. Religious and other supernatural beliefs shape our values, beliefs and attitude and affect our businesses, work, lifestyle, efficiency and sense of responsibility. People will refrain from undesired and unwanted anti social behavior if they believe in super natural things out of the fear of punishment. If they believe in witchcraft they will refrain from deviant behavior because they regard their failures or misfortunes as a result of witchcraft. Superstitions This belief system leads to many superstitions present in every society. It is not considered food to walk under the ladder, Friday thirteenth, breaking of mirror, cat crossing your path etc. al l these are used to explain our misfortunes. An Anthology of US Latino literature There is a great no. of anthologies of short essays or short stories available but Latino Boom’s treatment of story and style is very different and unique. Here I will discuss his story in chapter four: The lost worlds. The story is about Dream and Betrayals. (Jose B Gonzales)Most of Latino’s fiction is about movement from one culture to another and the differences and the gaps and voids between the two. He handles the transition from a safe and convenient sphere to more painful one very expertly. Most of his stories deal with the delusion of the immigrants how they perceive their past. Mircea Eliadie regards the original edenic setting as â€Å"Land of pure†. It’s about false beliefs immigrants nurture about their native lands as they were a lost piece from paradise. Some go to such extent that they refuse to accept the changes and take active part in the new changed world. They spend their lives in day dreaming about their past live where everything was safe and recognizable and good. It impairs their ability to mingle with people. It talks about cultural differences. His usage of the word â€Å"between worlds† has almost become a cliche. His imagery of the distant green islands and peace of Puerto Rico reflects the notion of the lost paradise and debility to

Greed Field Ventures Limited Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Greed Field Ventures Limited - Essay Example Allison Madison has been in agricultural production since 1980s. He inherited a vast land at different locations. All together he inherited about 1150 acres. Only about half of the total farm land was cultivated at the initial stage. Farming was highly seasonal. Hence there the capital base was small. The turnover was about $89,500.00. Only the farm lands close to villages were cultivated. Labour was provided by villagers and seasonal migrants. There were no built structures except small round-shaped mud warehouses scattered in the village settlements. The crops produced were crops produced in the neighbouring village settlements. They were all cereals: maize, millet and guinea corn. Although production was above subsistence level, farm produce were largely sold in the village market. Thus prices were highly variable and unpredictable. There was no proper record of the inputs and outputs in the production process. Except for the processing of maize stalks into fence, there was no val ue added to the production process. By late 1990s Allison has settled down. The acreage inherited was fully utilized. The types of crops produced have increased. Ground nuts, soya beans and rice were produced. Manual labour was complimented by tractors. Two tractors were hired. The size and type of crops produced were not for village market. Two warehouses were consequently built, where farm produce were stored and sold when prices are favourable. A truck with capacity of conveying 3 tonnes was bought purposely for transporting produce to distant markets and buyers. Allison was assisted in the management of the farms by his son, with a degree in business administration, and his nephew with a diploma in agricultural economics.

Sexual abstenance Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Sexual abstenance - Research Paper Example Abstinence from sexual intercourse is believed by most parents and religious groups to be the only acceptable method of birth control for teenagers. In this regard, the essay aims to proffer issues pertaining to sexual abstinence. The discourse would initially define sexual abstinence and determine its brief historical background. Likewise, the effects of abstinence-only approach in sex education would be examined. Finally, some suggestions and recommendations on using abstinence in sexual education would be presented. Sexual abstinence is defined as â€Å"the practice of voluntarily refraining from sexual intercourse and (usually) other sexual activity. Sexual abstinence is typically considered a subset of behavior in the context of chastity as the latter refers also to attitude and intent and not mere mechanics. Sexual abstinence is typically advocated in the categories of religious/moral concerns and health/social concerns, with a significant overlap between the two† (WordIQ, par. 1). In an article published by Avert on abstinence and sex education, the discussion provided clear definitions of abstinence based approach to sexual education which encourages abstinence from sex until marriage. The Federal Law in the United States enumerated learning objectives of abstinence education, to wit: In a study conducted by Planes, et.al. on definitions and examples of abstinence to Spanish University students, the findings revealed that the current understanding of the term is ambiguous resulting to risky sexual behaviors (Planes, et.al, 172). A table indicated in the research on the definitions of the meaning of the term abstinence by gender provided â€Å"778 examples or definitions of abstinence† (Planes, et.al, 170) validating the diverse understanding of students on the accurate definition of the term. The discourse provided by WordIQ traced the developments on sexual freedom to the First World War which indicates that the

Critical response to idiot nation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Critical response to idiot nation - Essay Example The quality of the education system is for example poor in relation to standards in other countries. The fact that American college students cannot tackle mathematical concepts learnt at elementary levels in some countries is an indication that these other countries are equipping their students in a better way than the American system. The notion that American education system fails to motivate students into academic achievements is also true. No one can for example refute the fact that American students would prefer life outside school to learning. Even in school, students are comfortable with, are more interested in extra curriculum activities than studies, and would be identified in peer discussions. As a result, time and effort for developing an intelligent nation is lost. Poor facilities that exist in schools also explain, to some extent, the lack of motivation in education because other social factors such as sports and entertainment have facilities that are more attractive tha n academic institutions

Describe the current Australian economic situation and support your Assignment

Describe the current Australian economic situation and support your claims - Assignment Example Introduction Global Economy is experiencing one of its worst phases of history because of the widespread economic downturn. What started with the subprime mortgage crisis has now created widespread economic panic which has even resulted into the downgrade of credit ratings of the largest economy of the world. The emerging sovereign debt crisis has exposed many governments’ ability to maintain a sustainable level of debt. The Euro Zone is actively looking for new ways and means to support economies like Greece, Spain, Portugal, Italy to avert their sovereign default. Considering such situation, the overall growth prospects for the world economy are suggesting a stagnant growth rate of approximately 4.5% for current year and for the year 2012 and 2013. Australian Economy however, despite such downturn managed to achieve reasonable growth rates as well as better economic performance. Growth during 2010 and 2011 remained healthy despite the fact that country faced harsh weather co nditions which slowed down economic growth. Real GDP increased by 2.7% as on Dec 2010 however, growth in household consumption remained low. It is important to note that there is a gradual increase in the inflation owing to rise in the food prices. (BBC, 2011). Increasing inflation level therefore may erode the overall economic growth of the country if it is not able to control inflation levels. The recent statistics for the unemployment level also suggest that the overall level of unemployment is increasing in the country. Figures for July 2011 suggested an unemployment rate of 5.1% which seem to have surprised many. (Zappone, 2011). Current Economic Situation in Australia As discussed above that economy of Australia posted improved performance when world was witnessing economic and financial turmoil. However, the recent data suggests that the overall economic situation may not sustain for long as there is a gradual increase in the level of inflation as well as the unemployment lev el. The overall cash rate i.e. the rate offered by Reserve Bank of Australia is held at 4.75% however, there are indications that the overall rate may further be increased due to rising inflation level. (RBA, 2011). Higher interest rates prevailing in the economy may be due to the fact that the Australia may be looking for to ensure that the inflation remain within control. The recent monetary policy issued by the central bank of the country suggests that the increase in the level of unemployment has slowed down however; it is still increasing thus causing important repercussions for the Australian economy. It is also important to understand that the overall industrial wages are also increasing in the economy thus increasing the overall burden on the firms in terms of their overall variable costs. It has also been suggested that the overall fiscal policy is being exercised in contractionary mode thus creating an environment where the demand for government purchase of goods and servi ce may decline. Such contraction therefore may result into the reduction in the overall aggregate demand in the economy and thus reduce the overall growth rates. The current performance of the economy therefore may witness further decline in the future. Important Factors One of the key challenges faced by reserve bank is the declining consumer activity within the economy. The lack of domestic demand therefore may be one of the key economic variables

Introduction to Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Introduction to Business - Essay Example Whistle-blowers now commonly refers to those who firmly believe that the unchecked conduct of their organization will do more harm than good, and so exert efforts to speak up. The act of whistle blowing is necessary to rectifying problems in society, yet whistle blowers are often punished severely for their moves (Matthews, 2003). Obviously, whistle-blowing can be a tangled and legally dangerous event. Lawyer Taylor (2006) who had found herself whistle-blowing along with two other colleagues said one had to be ready for any form of retaliation, to expect them and to combat them. In Diana Heil's (2004) reports, a whistle-blower can experience continuing retaliation even when one backs down. Whistle-blowing is said to justifiable only where certain minimal conditions have been met (What is, 1997). Accordingly, a justifiable disclosure must meet four conditions: 1) The disclosure does more good than harm; 2) It serves some purpose in correcting or preventing the wrongdoing concerned; 3) It is made in a responsible manner; and 4) It follows upon the exhaustion of internal channels of complaint and redress. Whistle-blowing is the smoke signal according to Parthasarathi (2003), that there is corruption happening; therefore, government should act. During the Nixon era, it is said that $800 toilet seats were discovered at the Pentagon, and people began to realize the service that whistle-blowers provided at the risk to themselves (Taylor, 2006). There are now laws that protect these employees of courage and a group dedicated to their interests (Current Program, GAP, 2006). Sirshar Quereshi (2006) who specializes in fraud investigations wrote that whistle-blowing can be an effective early warning system. He said employees "in the front line" know better than anyone what is happening in their area of activity so that it is beneficial to listen to them, otherwise a local difficulty may grow into a crisis. Taylor (2006) who works closely with whistle-blowers said the primary goal that whistle-blowers usually seek is accountability for mis-behaviour and correction of the problems they see in the work place. Most whistleblowers realize that their actions will cost them money, wear away privilege and generate negative publicity, Taylor said. Yet, they persist, desiring honesty in government and wanting an end to infringements of law. In the beginning, a whistle-blower is said to be often faced with a plethora of ethical dilemmas, the most fundamental of which is whether to do the "right thing" or not. According to Reese (2002), multiple organizational variables inhibit one from doing the right thing within an organization, one of which is threat to one's career. Tom Carpenter of The Government Accountability Project (GAP) who has represented numerous whistle-blowers said he tells people who are contemplating blowing the whistle not to do it if they cared for their career. But then "Most people decide to go forward anyway" (Heil, 2004). Despite all the anguish, a whistle-blower said he had no regrets about the stand he took. "Is it worth it'" he was asked. "Yes, absolutely; I would do it again. I truly believe that some people have lives and others have destinies," he said. Whistle-blowing is not only

A Subsidiary of an MNC in Saudi Arabia Research Paper

A Subsidiary of an MNC in Saudi Arabia - Research Paper Example Best Company, Inc, 2011). All these factors are set to affect political and financial stability of Saudi Arabia. The paper will look into the political and financial risks that will affect a subsidiary of an MNC coming to do business in Saudi Arabia for the first time. Political Risk The political risk in Saudi Arabia is moderate. Saudi Arabia is among the six countries that frame the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). The objectives of GCC are formulation of consistent regulatory environment, cooperation of the private sector, and the establishment of a common currency. The regional political unrest, mainly in Bahrain, is a major concern for Saudi Arabia. There are expectations that King Abdullah will go on with his reform agendas in the next few years (A.M. Best Company, Inc, 2011). There are pressures mounting on the ruling House of Saud and several factors are set to compromise the political stability of the Kingdom. The first factor is the long-term implications of the population e xplosion in the Kingdom in the past 25 years. Population explosion linked with rapid urbanization, insufficient education system, persistent and increase in the numbers, and the lack of employment opportunities is straining the Saudi Arabia social fabric. The extensive unemployment among the young males is because of the education system that has failed to equip them with the necessary skills required to match the â€Å"Saudi Arabia’s requirements for a modern economic, commercial and industrial workplace† (Corbett, 2006). The labor market of Saudi Arabia is unable to sustain the huge number of new entrants together with the increasing number of educated women looking for employment. The state education system has failed to generate productive members in the society and thus, it has underpinned the employment problem. Primary and secondary education is based on the religious curriculum and this education material has been under criticism because it has encouraged stude nts to be prejudiced towards the other religions apart from Islam. The resultant effect has been that some Saudi Arabians have become vulnerable to radicalization and terrorist recruitment. Political instability fears are due to the succession issues and, perhaps, they may be a western obsession that is frequently accompanied by the failure to acknowledge how senior princes of the Kingdom have achieved collaboration in the past years. The succession debate has put a lot of pressure on the political stability of the nation. The debate is focusing on the time the leadership will go to the next generation. Despite the present pressures, Saudi Arabia is proving its resilience and it has started adapting to the challenges. As the reforms gather speed, the projections for long-term stability are improving. Short-term measures include effective measures to contain terrorism threat. In the meantime, the royal family â€Å"will continue to work towards addressing the underlying causes of in stability, attempting to reinvigorate confidence in its leadership among the Saudi Arabian public† (Corbett, 2006). Financial Risk The financial system risk in Saudi Arabia is low. Saudi Arabia business environment is average and the reliability and availability of corporate financial data or information varies widely. The collection of debt sometimes proves to be difficult because of the poor administration framework. The

Fashion Industry Essay Example for Free

Fashion Industry Essay Early Western travelers, whether to Persia, Turkey, India, or China, would frequently remark on the absence of change in fashion there. The Japanese Shoguns secretary bragged (not completely accurately) to a Spanish visitor in 1609 that Japanese clothing had not changed in over a thousand years.[4] However, there is considerable evidence in Ming China of rapidly changing fashions in Chinese clothing.[5] Changes in costume often took place at times of economic or social change, as occurred in ancient Rome and the medieval Caliphate, followed by a long period without major changes. In 8th-century Moorish Spain the musician Ziryab introduced to Cà ³rdoba[6][unreliable source?][7] sophisticated clothing-styles based on seasonal and daily fashions from his native Baghdad, modified by his own inspiration. Similar changes in fashion occurred in the 11th century in the Middle East following the arrival of the Turks, who introduced clothing styles from Central Asia and the Far East.[8] The beginning in Europe of continual and increasingly rapid change in clothing styles can be fairly reliably dated. Historians, including James Laver and Fernand Braudel, date the start of Western fashion in clothing to the middle of the 14th century.[9][10] The most dramatic early change in fashion was a sudden drastic shortening and tightening of the male over-garment from calf-length to barely covering the buttocks,[11] sometimes accompanied with stuffing in the chest to make it look bigger. This created the distinctive Western outline of a tailored top worn over leggings or trousers. The pace of change accelerated considerably in the following century, and women and mens fashion, especially in the dressing and adorning of the hair, became equally complex. Art historians are therefore able to use fashion with confidence and precision to date images, often to within five years, particularly in  the case of images from the 15th century. Initially, changes in fashion led to a fragmentation across the upper classes of Europe of what had previously been a very similar style of dressing and the subsequent development of distinctive national styles. These national styles remained very different until a counter-movement in the 17th to 18th centuries imposed similar styles once again, mostly originating from Ancien Rà ©gime France.[12] Though the rich usually led fashion, the increasing affluence of early modern Europe led to the bourgeoisie and even peasants following trends at a distance, but still uncomfortably close for the elites – a factor that Fernand Braudel regards as one of the main motors of changing fashion.[13] Albrecht Dà ¼rers drawing contrasts a well turned out bourgeoise from Nuremberg (left) with her counterpart from Venice. The Venetian ladys high chopines make her look taller. In the 16th century national differences were at their most pronounced. Ten 16th century portraits of German or Italian gentlemen may show ten entirely different hats. Albrecht Dà ¼rer illustrated the differences in his actual (or composite) contrast of Nuremberg and Venetian fashions at the close of the 15th century (illustration, right). The Spanish style of the late 16th century began the move back to synchronicity among upper-class Europeans, and after a struggle in the mid-17th century, French styles decisively took over leadership, a process completed in the 18th century.[14] Though textile colors and patterns changed from year to year,[15] the cut of a gentlemans coat and the length of his waistcoat, or the pattern to which a ladys dress was cut, changed more slowly. Mens fashions were largely derived from military models, and changes in a European male Silhouette were galvanized in theaters of European war where gentleman officers had opportunities to make notes of foreign styles such as the Steinkirk cravat or necktie. Marie Antoinette, wife of Louis XVI, was a leader of fashion. Her choices, such as this 1783 white muslin dress called a chemise a la Reine, were highly influential and widely worn.[16] Though there had been distribution of dressed dolls from France since the 16th century and Abraham Bosse had produced engravings of fashion in the 1620s, the pace of change picked up in the 1780s with increased publication of French engravings illustrating the  latest Paris styles. By 1800, all Western Europeans were dressing alike (or thought they were); local variation became first a sign of provincial culture and later a badge of the conservative peasant.[17] Although tailors and dressmakers were no doubt responsible for many innovations, and the textile industry certainly led many trends, the history of fashion design is normally understood to date from 1858 when the English-born Charles Frederick Worth opened the first true haute couture house in Paris. The Haute house was the name established by government for the fashion houses that met the standards of industry. These fashion houses have to adhere to standards such as keeping at least twenty employees engaged in making the clothes, showing two collections per year at fashion shows, and presenting a certain number of patterns to costumers.[18] Since then, the idea of the fashion designer as a celebrity in his or her own right has become increasingly dominant.[19] The idea of unisex dressing originated in the 1960s when designers such as Pierre Cardin and Rudi Gernreich created garments, such as stretch jersey tunics or leggings, meant to be worn by both males and females. The impact of unisex expands more broadly to encompass various themes in fashion including androgyny, mass-market retail, and conceptual clothing.[20] The fashion trends of the 1970s, such as sheepskin jackets, flight jackets, duffel coats, and unstructured clothing influenced men to attend social gatherings with out a tuxedo jacket and to accessorize in new ways. Some mens styles blended the sensuality and expressiveness despite the conservative trend, the growing gay-rights movement and an emphasis on youth allowed for a new freedom to experiment with style, fabrics such as wool crepe, which had previously been associated with womens attire was used by designers when creating male clothing.[21] The four major current fashion capitals are acknowledged to be Paris, Milan, New York City, and London, which are all headquarters to the greatest fashion companies and are renowned for their major influence on global fashion. Fashion weeks are held in these cities, where designers exhibit their new clothing collections to audiences. A succession of major designers such as Coco Chanel and Yves Saint-Laurent have kept Paris as the center most watched by the rest of the world, although haute couture is now subsidized by the sale of ready-to-wear collections and perfume using the same branding. Modern Westerners have a wide number of choices available in  the selection of their clothes. What a person chooses to wear can reflect his or her personality or interests. When people who have high cultural status start to wear new or different clothes, a fashion trend may start. People who like or respect these people become influenced by their personal style and begin wearing similarly styled clothes. Fashions may vary considerably within a society according to age, social class, generation, occupation, and geography and may also vary over time. If an older person dresses according to the fashion young people use, he or she may look ridiculous in the eyes of both young and older people. The terms fashionista and fashion victim refer to someone who slavishly follows current fashions. One can regard the system of sporting various fashions as a fashion language incorporating various fashion statements using a grammar of fashion. (Compare some of the work of Roland Barthes.) In recent years, Asian fashion has become increasingly significant in local and global markets. Countries such as China, Japan, India, and Pakistan have traditionally had large textile industries, which have often been drawn upon by Western designers, but now Asian clothing styles are also gaining influence based on their own ideas.[22] Fashion industry The fashion industry is a product of the modern `age.[23] Prior to the mid-19th century, most clothing was custom-made. It was handmade for individuals, either as home production or on order from dressmakers and tailors. By the beginning of the 20th century—with the rise of new technologies such as the sewing machine, the rise of global capitalism and the development of the factory system of production, and the proliferation of retail outlets such as department stores—clothing had increasingly come to be mass-produced in standard sizes and at fixed prices. Although the fashion industry developed first in Europe and America, as of 2015[update] it is an international and highly globalized industry, with clothing often designed in one country, manufactured in another, and sold world-wide. For example, an American fashion company might source fabric in China and have the clothes manufactured in Vietnam, finished in Italy, and shipped to a warehouse in the United States for distribution to retail outlets internationally. The fashion industry has long been one of the largest employers in the United States,[24] and it remains so in the 21st century.  However, U.S. employment declined considerably as production increasingly moved overseas, especially to China. Because data on the fashion industry typically are reported for national economies and expressed in terms of the industrys many separate sectors, aggregate figures for world production of textiles and clothing are difficult to obtain. However, by any measure, the clothing industry accounts for a significant share of world economic output.[25] The fashion industry consists of four levels: 1. the production of raw materials, principally fibers and textiles but also leather and fur 2. the production of fashion goods by designers, manufacturers, contractors, and others 3. retail sales 4. various forms of advertising and promotion These levels consist of many separate but interdependent sectors. These sectors are Textile Design and Production, Fashion Design and Manufacturing, Fashion Retailing, Marketing and Merchandising, Fashion Shows, and Media and Marketing. Each sector is devoted to the goal of satisfying consumer demand for apparel under conditions that enable participants in the industry to operate at a profit.[26] Media The media plays a significant role when it comes to fashion. For instance, an important part of fashion is fashion journalism. Editorial critique, guidelines, and commentary can be found on television and in magazines, newspapers, fashion websites,[27] Social network, and fashion blogs. In recent years, fashion blogging and YouTube videos have become a major outlet for spreading trends and fashion tips. Through these media outlets readers and viewers all over the world can learn about fashion, making it very accessible.[28] At the beginning of the 20th century, fashion magazines began to include photographs of various fashion designs and became even more influential than in the past. In cities throughout the world these magazines were greatly sought after and had a profound effect on public taste in clothing. Talented illustrators drew exquisite fashion plates for the publications which covered the most recent developments in fashion and beauty. Perhaps the most famous of these magazines was La Gazette du Bon Ton, which was founded in 1912 by Lucien Vogel and regularly published until 1925 (with the exception of the war years).[citation needed] Vogue, founded  in the United States in 1892, has been the longest-lasting and most successful of the hundreds of fashion magazines that have come and gone. Increasing affluence after World War II and, most importantly, the advent of cheap color printing in the 1960s, led to a huge boost in its sales and heavy coverage of fashion in mainstream womens magazines, followed by mens magazines in the 1990s. One such example of Vogues popularity is the younger version, Teen Vogue, which covers clothing and trends that are targeted more toward the fashionista on a budget. Haute couture designers followed the trend by starting ready-to-wear and perfume lines which are heavily advertised in the magazines and now dwarf their original couture businesses. A recent development within fashion print media is the rise of text-based and critical magazines which aim to prove that fashion is not superficial, by creating a dialogue between fashion academia and the industry. Examples of this trend are: Fashion Theory (1997) and Vestoj (2009). Television coverage began in the 1950s with small fashion features. In the 1960s and 1970s, fashion segments on various entertainment shows became more frequent, and by the 1980s, dedicated fashion shows such as Fashion Television started to appear. FashionTV was the pioneer in this undertaking and has since grown to become the leader in both Fashion Television and new media channels. Despite television and increasing internet coverage, including fashion blogs, press coverage remains the most important form of publicity in the eyes of the fashion industry.[citation needed] However, over the past several years, fashion websites have developed that merge traditional editorial writing with user-generated content. Online magazines like iFashion Network and Runway Magazine, led by Nole Marin from Americas Next Top Model, have begun to dominate the market with digital copies for computers, iPhones, and iPads. Example platforms include Apple and Android for such applications. A few days after the 2010 Fall Fashion Week in New York City came to a close, The New Islanders Fashion Editor, Genevieve Tax, criticized the fashion industry for running on a seasonal schedule of its own, largely at the expense of real-world consumers. Because designers release their fall collections in the spring and their spring collections in the fall, fashion magazines such as Vogue always and only look forward to the upcoming season, promoting parkas come September while issuing reviews on shorts in January, she writes. Savvy  shoppers, consequently, have been conditioned to be extremely, perhaps impractically, farsighted with their buying.[29] The fashion industry has been the subject of numerous films and television shows, including the reality show Project Runway and the drama series Ugly Betty. Specific fashion brands have been featured in film, not only as product placement opportunities, but as bespoke items that have subsequently led to trends in fashion.[30] Public relations and social media Fashion public relations involves being in touch with a company’s audiences and creating strong relationships with them, reaching out to media and initiating messages that project positive images of the company.[31] Social media plays an important role in modern day fashion public relations; enabling practitioners to reach a wide range of consumers through various platforms. Building brand awareness and credibility is a key implication of good public relations. In some cases, great hype is built about new designers collections before they are released into the market, due to the immense exposure generated by practitioners.[32] Social media, such as blogs, micro blogs, podcasts, photo and video sharing sites have all become increasingly important to fashion public relations.[33] The interactive nature of these platforms allows practitioners to engage and communicate with publics in real time, and tailor their clients’ brand or campaign messages to the target audience. With blogging platforms such as Instagram, Tumblr, WordPress and other sharing sites, bloggers have emerged as expert fashion commentators, shaping brands and having a great impact on what is ‘on trend’.[34] Women in the fashion public relations industry such as Sweaty Betty PR founder Roxy Jacenko and Oscar de la Renta’s PR girl Erika Bearman, have acquired copious amounts of followers on their social media sites, by providing a brand identity and a behind the scenes look into the companies they work for. Social media is changing the way practitioners deliver messages,[11] as they are concerned with the media, and also customer relationship building.[35] PR practitioners must provide effective communication among all platforms, in order to engage fashion publics in an industry socially connected via online shopping.[36] Consumers have the ability to share their purchases on their personal social media pages (such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, etc.), and if practitioners deliver the  brand message effectively and meet the needs of its publics, word-of-mouth publicity will be generated and potentially provide a wide reach for the designer and their products. Anthropological perspective Anthropology, the study of culture and human societies, studies fashion by asking why certain styles are deemed socially appropriate and others are not. A certain way is chosen and that becomes the fashion as defined by a certain people as a whole, so if a particular style has a meaning in an already occurring set of beliefs that style will become fashion.[37] According to Ted Polhemus and Lynn Procter, fashion can be described as adornment, of which there are two types: fashion and anti-fashion. Through the capitalization and commoditisation of clothing, accessories, and shoes, etc., what once constituted anti-fashion becomes part of fashion as the lines between fashion and anti-fashion are blurred.[38] The definition of fashion and anti-fashion is as follows: Anti-fashion is fixed and changes little over time. Anti-fashion is different depending on the cultural or social group one is associated with or where one lives, but within that group or locality the style changes little. Fas hion is the exact opposite of anti-fashion. Fashion changes very quickly and is not affiliated with one group or area of the world but is spread out throughout the world wherever people can communicate easily with each other. For example, Queen Elizabeth II’s 1953 coronation gown is an example of anti-fashion because it is traditional and does not change over any period whereas a gown from fashion designer Dior’s collection of 1953 is fashion because the style will change every season as Dior comes up with a new gown to replace the old one. In the Dior gown the length, cut, fabric, and embroidery of the gown change from season to season. Anti-fashion is concerned with maintaining the status quo while fashion is concerned with social mobility. Time is expressed in terms of continuity in anti-fashion and as change in fashion. Fashion has changing modes of adornment while anti-fashion has fixed modes of adornment. Indigenous and peasant modes of adornment are an example of anti-fashion. Change in fashion is part of the larger system and is structured to be a deliberate change in style.[39] Today, people in rich countries are linked to people in poor countries through the commoditization and con sumption of what is called fashion. People work long hours in one area of the globe to  produce things that people in another part of the globe are anxious to consume. An example of this is the chain of production and consumption of Nike shoes, which are produced in Taiwan and then purchased in North America. At the production end there is nation-building a hard working ideology that leads people to produce and entices people to consume with a vast amount of goods for the offering. Commodities are no longer just utilitarian but are fashionable, be they running shoes or sweat suits.[40] The change from anti-fashion to fashion because of the influence of western consumer-driven civilization can be seen in eastern Indonesia. The ikat textiles of the Ngada area of eastern Indonesia are changing because of modernization and development. Traditionally, in the Ngada area there was no idea similar to that of the Western idea of fashion, but anti-fashion in the form of traditional textiles and ways to adorn oneself were widely popular. Textiles in Indonesia have played many roles for the local people. Textiles defined a person’s rank and status; certain textiles indicated being part of the ruling class. People expressed their ethnic identity and social hierarchy through textiles. Because some Indonesians bartered ikat textiles for food, the textiles constituted economic goods, and as some textile design motifs had spiritual religious meanings, textiles were also a way to communicate religious messages.[41] In eastern Indonesia, both the production and use of traditional textiles have been transformed as the production, use and value associated with textiles have changed due to modernization. In the past, women produced the textiles either for home consumption or to trade with others. Today this has changed as most textiles are not being produced at home. Western goods are considered modern and are valued more than traditional goods, including the sarong, which retain a lingering association with colonialism. Now, sarongs are used only for rituals and ceremonial occasions, whereas western clothes are worn to church or government offices. Civil servants working in urban areas are more likely than peasants to make the distinction between western and traditional clothes. Following Indonesia’s independence from the Dutch, people increasingly started buying factory made shirts and sarongs. In textile-producing areas the growing of cotton and production of naturally colored thread became obsolete. Traditional motifs on textiles are no longer considered the property of a certain social class or age group. Wives of  government officials are promoting the use of traditional textiles in the form of western garments such as skirts, vests and blouses. This trend is also being followed by the general populace, and whoever can afford to hire a tailor is doing so to stitch traditional ikat textiles into western clothes. Thus, traditional textiles are now fashion goods and are no longer confined to the black, white and brown colour palette but come in array of colours. Traditional textiles are also being used in interior decorations and to make handbags, wallets and other accessories, which are considered fashionable by civil servants and their families. There is also a booming tourist trade in the eastern Indonesian city of Kupang where international as well as domestic tourists are eager to purchase traditionally printed western goods.[42] The use of traditional textiles for fashion is becoming big business in eastern Indonesia, but these traditional textiles are losing their ethnic identity markers and are being used as an item of fashion.[43] Intellectual property Student modeling at the Fashion marketing event at the Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education, Mexico City. Within the fashion industry, intellectual property is not enforced as it is within the film industry and music industry. Robert Glariston, an intellectual property expert mentioned in a fashion seminar held in LA[which?] that Copyright law regarding clothing is a current hot-button issue in the industry. We often have to draw the line between designers being inspired by a design and those outright stealing it in different places.[citation needed] To take inspiration from others designs contributes to the fashion industrys ability to establish clothing trends. For the past few years, WGSN has been a dominant source of fashion news and forecasts in encouraging fashion brands worldwide to be inspired by one another. Enticing consumers to buy clothing by establishing new trends is, some have argued, a key component of the industrys success. Intellectual property rules that interfere with this process of trend-making would, in this view, be counter-productive. On the other hand, it is often argued that the blatant theft of new ideas, unique designs, and design details by larger companies is what often contributes to the failure of many smaller or independent design companies. Since fakes are distinguishable by their poorer quality, there is still a demand for luxury  goods, and as only a trademark or logo can be copyrighted, many fashion brands make this one of the most visible aspects of the garment or accessory. In handbags, especially, the designers brand may be woven into the fabric (or the lining fabric) from which the bag is made, making the brand an intrinsic element of the bag. In 2005, the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) held a conference calling for stricter intellectual property enforcement within the fashion industry to better protect small and medium businesses and promote competitiveness within the textile and clothing industries.[44][45] Political activism Fashion may be used to promote a cause, such as to promote healthy behavior,[46] to raise money for a cancer cure,[47] or to raise money for local charities[48] such as the Juvenile Protective Association[49] or a childrens hospice.[50] One up-and-coming fashion cause is trashion, which is using trash to make clothes, jewelery and other fashion items in order to promote awareness of pollution. There are a number of modern trashion artists such as Marina DeBris, Ann Wizer,[51] and Nancy Judd.[52]

The Amazing Catch Essay Example for Free

The Amazing Catch Essay I am writing this paper on the video clip of the amazing catch made by the ball girl. This paper is going to be my perception of the video as I go through the three stages of perception. I will also be explaining my thoughts throughout the three stages of perception while watching the video. In addition, I will in the end be deciding whether or not I believe the video to be true or fake. Selection. Selection is defined in the book as the following â€Å"The process of attending to a stimulus. † (Floyd, pg. 109) I have watched this video over and over before writing this paper, but the first time I watched it nothing really stood out to me besides the very end where the girl catches the ball because that stimulus was unusual so my brain selected that. However, when I repeatedly watched the video I started to notice other things because I was using repetition. Some things that started to stand out to me were that the catcher changes his glove from one hand to another throughout the short video. Also the logo on the catcher’s vest changes sides during the video. And the last thing that stuck out was that after the girl catches the ball, you cant really tell she has a ponytail and she keeps her face towards the ground and not up where you can see it. The third characteristic of selection is intensity, which sort of ties the first two characteristics together. The reason I noticed the catch first was because it was my first time seeing the video so I didn’t know what to expect, and because the intensity or unusualness of the catch caught me off guard and my brain became alert, but as I began to look closer after watching it a few times I noticed more minute differences that I would never had noticed the first time watching the video. Organization. The book says organization is â€Å"The process of categorizing information that has been selected for attention.† (Floyd, pg. 109) When we are in the second stage of perception, there are four types of schema that  we use when we classify what we perceive about other people. Those four schemas are physical constructs, role constructs, interaction constructs, and psychological constructs. I however didn’t really use all four of those constructs when watching the amazing catch. I used three of the four schema, the physical, role and interaction constructs were the ones I used while classifying the information I perceived. When it comes to the physical constructs, it emphasizes people’s physical attributes. I noticed the girl wasn’t very tall, she was probably mid twenties, and that she had a slim body shape, which are all factors that make the catch hard to believe. The role constructs emphasize people’s social or professional positio n. I noticed at the end of the video was that she was a ball girl, and most ball girl or boys don’t ever go for a ball if it is in play or could potentially stay in play which I thought was a tad bit odd. The last construct that I used is the interaction construct. The interaction construct emphasizes people’s behaviors and I noticed that the girl kept her head down until she was in the chair with the camera on her. I find that weird because if you had just made a catch as amazing as that in a major league baseball game the last thing you would be doing is calmly jogging back to your seat. You would be showing off and admiring all of the cheers you were getting from the crowd. Stage one also aided in completing stage two because without being able to select the different stimuli in the beginning I wouldn’t be able to organize them and I wouldn’t have noticed all of the constructs that I saw during stage two. Interpretation. Interpretation is â€Å"The process of assigning meaning to information that has been selected for attention and organized.† (Floyd, pg. 111) There are three factors when it comes to interpretation. The three factors are experience, knowledge, and closeness. These are not especially useful in this situation because I have no personal experience with this girl, I have no former knowledge of this girl, and I have no closeness or relationship with this ball girl. I do however have prior knowledge of major league baseball. In major league baseball I have a hard time believing that a ball girl/boy would just jump into the game and catch a ball that was still in play, that is not their job and it is very unlikely. I don’t have a relationship with the girl, and I don’t have any prior experience with her  so I have no idea if she would just jump right into the middle of a game, but also having no prior closeness to this girl it is a lot easier to doubt her and feel like she is lying. Stage one and stage two of the perception process helped aid in my completion of stage three because without having stimuli to select and then organize I would have nothing to create an interpretation of. In conclusion, I do not think this video is real. I think this video is fake because of the switching of the glove and logo on the catchers uniform. I also found it very weird that you never got to see a close up of the girls face after the catch until she was all the way back at her seat. The last thing that makes me think this video isn’t real is that it just isn’t a believable thing for anyone to be able to do. I don’t think any human unless they were extremely tall would be able to jump to such a great height. It would be very impressive if this video truly is real, I just don’t perceive it to be. Works Cited Floyd, Kory. The Process of Perception. Interpersonal Communication. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2011. 108-13. Print.

Neurological Aspects of Pain

Neurological Aspects of Pain 1.1. Functional Properties of Nerve Fibres 1.1.1. Properties of Peripheral Somatic Nerves Peripheral somatic nerves consists generally of somatic-motor, autonomic-motor and sensible fibres. 1.1.1.1. Somatic-motor fibres for the striated musculature The cell bodys of somatomotor fibres for the striated musculature are always lying in the brainstem (12 pare cerebral nerves) or the fore horn of the whole spinal medulla. The stimulus runs from central to peripheral (efferent). The lateral cutaneous femoral nerve consists of sensible fibres and no motor fibres. The shiatic nerve consists of 20% motor fibres, 30% sensible, and 50% sympathetic fibres. The gluteal nerves consist of pure motor fibres, sympathetic fibres and no sensible fibres. 1,2 1.1.1.2. Autonomic-motor fibres for the smooth muscles of blood- and lymphatic vessels The autonomic-motor fibres for the smooth muscles of the blood and lymphatic vessels are of sympathetic origin. Venes are not innervated. They function by the musculare pump system and in some cases by valves. The cells bodies of the autonomic-motor fibres are situated in the lateral horn between C8-L2. They are termed: the centro-ganglionar neurons. All motor neurons, situated in the spinal medulla go via the fore horn to the peripheral nerve. It must be mentioned that all smooth muscles can contract without external innervation (for example: heart, gut). This is due to the intrinsic nerve system with is influenced by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system. 3-5 1.1.1.3. Sensible fibres for somatic structures The sensible fibres for somatic structures originate from muscles, tendons, capsules, joints, ligaments and bones. Their cell bodies are lying in the spinal ganglions of the corresponding nerve (= afferent). 2,6 1.1.1.4. Sensible fibres for autonomic structures: blood- en lymphatic vessels The cell bodies of the sensible fibres for autonomic structures are situated in the spinal ganglions of the segments where the sympathetic neurons start (SI-joint: T11-L1). The peripheral autonomic nerve contains generally autonomic-motor and sensible fibres and serves for the innervation of organs. Glands are always dubble innervated (sympathetic and parasympathetic), except for the adrenals. 2 Examples: The femoral arterie contains sensible fibres which go to the spinal ganglions and arrive in the dorsal horn where connections exist, via intercalar neurons, with the origins of the sympathethic fibres of the levels T10-T11. Knee joint: is sensible innervated via the sciatic nerve (posterior side of the knee), but in the knee capsule, sensible fibres exist which connect via the femoral arterie the levels T10-T12. 1.1.2. Properties of Peripheral Autonomic Fibres Peripheral autonomic nerves consist of autonomic-motor and sensible fibres. They innervate organs and glands. 1.1.2.1. Viscero-sensible fibres The cell bodies of viscero-sensible nerve fibres are situated in the spinal ganglions of those segments from where the sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons start. Example: the pelvis organs: S2-S4 and/or TLJ (= thoracolumbar junction). The TLJ receives a lot of information. Some of those stimuli go via the nervous supply in the blood vessel wall. 2 1.1.2.2. Motor fibres for smooth muscles The parasympathetic primary cells are situated in the brain stem to the level of C2 and the lateral horn of S2-S4. The sympathetic origin is situated in the lateral horn of C8-L2. 2,7,8 1.1.3. Axoplasma Flow of the Axons Materials and substances are moved within the cytoplasm of all cells. In the axoplasm (= cytoplasm of neurons), structures such as the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, microtubules and neurofilaments likely take part of the axoplasmic transport mechanism. Perhaps the human movement plays a role in this intracellular motility 9. In the cytoplasm of nerve fibres nutrients and transmitters are moved. At the nerve ends vesicles are located, that continue the transport into the gap junction. The transport in the axoplasma is termed antidrome and orthodrome transport. Antidrome (antegrade) transport occurs from central to the periphery and orthodrome (retrograde) transport in the opposite direction.1,10,11 For the sciatic nerve the antidrome transport is rather fast (12 hours), the orthodrome transport is slower (48 hours). 1.1.3.1. Signal transfer of the peripheral nerve fibres Ion-channels and receptors play an important role in the signal transfer of the peripheral nerve fibres. The ion-channels are located on the extremities of the fibres. They make the transport for the neurotransmitters possible. Receptors are specified. Every cell has ÂÂ ± 1 million receptors. The gates of the ion-channels (mostly proteins) can be inhibitory or excitatory. The Swann-cells are spread over the axon and form de myelin sheet. The myelin sheets are interrupted by the knots of Ranvier. In the CNS they are termed glial cells. The glial cells have several functions. The myelin sheets have a certain thickness. Unmyelinated axons have Schwann-cells as well. In myelinated axons the stimulus progresses salutatory and in unmyelinated axons the stimulus progresses slowly. The signal transfer of the peripheral nerve fibres has 3 kinds of stimulus progress being chemical transport, electric stimuli progression and axoplasm flow. Chemical transport occurs at the nerve ends, and consists of neurotransmitters. The transport depends of the kind of ion-channel, the neurotransmitter and the receptor. Electric stimuli progress over the axon and occur by opening of the ion-channels stimulation the own nerve ends due to production of the neurotransmitters. The speed of transmission depends of the presence of a myelin sheet and the diameter of the fibres. The axoplasm flow of the neurotransmitter in axoplasma (= chemical) occurs in 2 directions. Sometimes the pain can occur 24 hours after injury! It can also be very slow (up to 48 hours) and be resposible for the delayed onset of pain. 1,11 1.1.3.2. Morphologic and functional classification of nerve fibres: Understanding pain phenomen the morphologic and functional properties of nerve fibres is important. In time several classification systems have been investigated and proposed. 1.1.3.3. Classifying axons according to their conduction velocity In the 1920s and 1930s, there was a virtual use of classifying axons according to their conduction velocity 13. Three main categories were discerned, called A, B and C fibres: C fibres are the smallest and slowest. Mechanoreceptors generally fall in category A. The A group is further broken down into subgroups designated: the a fibres: the fastest the b fibres the d fibres: the slowest The muscle afferents axons are usually classified into four additional groups: I: the fastest II, III and IV: the slowest, with subgroups designated by lower case roman letters. 1.1.3.4. Properties of the A-d, A-b sensors or type I en II fibres The A-a and A-b fibres have low threshold properties. They are low threshold afferents/efferents, they have a quick adaptation, are bi- or monosynaptic and unimodal (= mechanosensors: only sensible for mechanical stimuli). They cross the midline in the spinal medulla. The A-b provides information about normal pressure or strain tension and the A-a provides information about position changes of joints in space. They give information about the smooth touch and kinesaesthesis in the skin. 1.1.3.5. Properties of the A-d and C sensors or type III en IV fibres 1.1.3.5.1. The A-d sensors or type III fibres The A-d or type III fibres are selective and have a slightly higher threshold than the A-a and the A-b sensors. They have a longer adaptation time. After a pin prick the pain keeps going on for a time which is a specific property of the A-d sensors. They are multisynaptic and cross the midline in the spinal medulla. A-d sensors are polymodal. They provide information about mechanical stretch and pressure forces from normal to noxious. They give information about temperature from normal to noxious stimuli. From 36,5ÂÂ °C tot 42ÂÂ °C especially C-fibres are involved. From 36,5ÂÂ °C tot 38ÂÂ °C the A-d fibres are responsible. A quantity of those fibres is noxious. They are termed: nocisensors but not all. Some measure only normal temperatures and they become nocisensors in case of tissue injury. 11 1.1.3.5.2. The C sensors or type IV fibres The C or type IV fibres are selective and have a high till very high threshold. They are slow to very slow with a long adaptation time. They have tonic and continuous activity properties. They cross the midline in the medulla medulla and are polymodal. The C fibres measure the chemical consistence of tissues from normal to noxious. They measure temperature from normal till abnormal (= noxious). Some of those fibres are nocisensors but not all of them. Example: the sensibility of the knee consists of 80% normal sensibility sensors and 20% nocisensors. 11 1.1.3.5.3. Difference between nocisensor- stimulation and pain A nocisensor measures the damage of injured tissue. A nocisensor can but must not necessarily provoke pain. A part of the A-d and C-fibres are nocisensors. They measure the damage or the almost-damage (mechanic, temperature, chemical). Their noxious stimulation does not always lead to pain perception. Here fore the stimulus must attain the thalamus and cerebral cortex, otherwise there is no pain sensation. Not all nociceptory stimuli rise so high to the midbrain or cortex. A lot of stimuli extinguish in the spinal medulla, the ascending pathways or in the brainstem. The stimulus attains the pain centres when the intensity of one stimulus is sufficient or when summation occurs of several stimuli in parts of the dorsal horn. As well reflectory (unconscious) as cognitive (conscious) reactions occur and the nocisensors will provoke pain, in case of severe damage. Thus, not all nocisensors provoke pain but they can be considered as normal pain fibres. It is logic that if a nocisensor is s ufficiently stimulated it will provoke the sensation of pain. A-d en C fibres can give pain thats not only caused by the damage itself, but as a result of the damage as well. A pain feelin which is more intense than normally expected is termed hyperalgesia. For example, when ice is applied on the skin it hurts but ice applied on a burned skin does hurt even more. When punctuated stimuli are applied on the course of the sciatic nerve it normally hurts but in case of sciatica it hurts even more (= hyperalgesia). Hyperalgesia is hypersensitivity on a stimulus that normally hurts, due to over stimulation of the nocisensors. The A-a and A-b fibres normally do not give pain, because they are not nocisensors. They register only normal values. Under certain circumstances they provoke pain. This happens in case of injured tissues or nerves or when the nocisensors become active. When nocisensors already give pain as a result of a decreased threshold, then the A-a and A-b fibres become sensiti ve as well. A light pressure on the pain area will also be painful. A low pressure- or strain force on the skin, tendons or muscles normally provoke no pain, but in case of damage it will well provoke pain. This is termed allodynia. Allodynia is pain that is caused by a stimulus that normally doesnt hurt due to an increased sensitivity of the the A-a and A-b fibres. This phenomon gives an opportunity to test the pain perception of the nervous system by use of pricking or brushing tests on the painfull area. There is a difference between nocisensor stimulation and the pain interpretation. 11 Table 5: Difference between nocicensor stimulation and pain. By use of selective stimulation the A-a and A-b fibres can be stimulated without that the A-d and C-fibres become active. This is caused by the low threshold of the A-a and A-ÃÆ'Ã… ¸ fibres compared with the A-d and C-fibres. A-d en C-fibres cant be stimulated selectively by use of mechanical stimuli because at the moment those fibres are stimulated; already the A-a and A-ÃÆ'Ã… ¸ fibres are active. When those become active, all fibres were stimulated. Also in case of nociception all those fibres are active. Selective stimulation can be used during TENS application or during active en passive mobilisations applied under the pain threshold level. 11 1.1.4. Hierarchy of the Nervous System The information processing in the nervous system happens on 4 levels. As well as the peripheral nerve ends, the dorsal horn, the brainstem and sub cortical and cortical levels are involvend. 1,7,11 1.1.4.1. The peripheral nerve ends The peripheral nerve ends are responsible for the uptake of information. The receptors are modulated by the state of surrounding tissue and the condition of the peripheral nerve. 1.1.4.2. The dorsal horn of the spinal medulla The dorsal horn modulates the incoming signals and is influenced by the state of the dorsal horn and the quantity and kind of gathered stimuli. 1.1.4.3. The brainstem The brainstem provides the primary responses with autonomic and hormonal modulations as a response to stimulation. 1.1.4.4. Sub cortical and cortical levels The sub cortical and cortical area provides the conscious cognitive and psycho-emotional modulation. The processing of the information and response on stimulation depends on the hierarchic manner, but always occurs with a total integration of the whole nerve system. 1.1.4.5. The Archi-, Paleo- and Neo level of the nervous system The nervous system can be ordered depending on a hierarchic manner in an archi, paleo and a neo level. 7 1.1.4.5.1. The Archi level The archi level consists of the gray matter (dorsal horn) of the spinal medulla, the ascending multisynaptic pathways in and around the gray matter, the medial pathways of the anterolateral quadrant, the mid part of the cerebellum and the brainstem (reticular formation). It is responsible for the most automatic movements after Hughlings Jackson. 7 1.1.4.5.2. The Paleo level The paleo level consists of the ascending pathways of the anterolateral quadrant, the descending pathways in the ventro-lateral quadrant, the hormonal and vestibular nuclei in the brainstem, the hypothalamus, certain parts of the cerebellum and the limbic system. Humoral influences from the liquor can influence (endofins) the sensibility of the pain system. 7 1.1.4.5.3. The Neo level The neo level consists of the dorsal ascending pathways, the dorso-lateral and ventral descending pathways, the cerebellar cortex, the lateral thamalus nuclei and the cerebral cortex. It is responsible for the cognitive mental processes, accurate skills and least automatic functions. 7 1.1.4.6. Phylogenetic development of the nervous system The phylogenetic development of the nervous system differs in time for the different levels. The archi-system is the oldest and is identical to that of the lower vertebrates. It is completely developed when born. The paleo-system is younger than the archi-system. It is identical of that of the lower vertebrates but only half developed when born. The neo-system is het youngest system in the phylogenetic evolution. It is much more developed than that of the lower vertebrates and not developed when born. 7 1.1.4.7. Functional properties of the different hierarchic systems of the nervous system Specific properties can be indicated to the different hierarchic levels of the nervous system. 1.1.4.7.1. Functional properties of the Archi level The archi level consists of C and A-d fibres. It is a relatively slow and tonic (continuous) working system that stands for the basic needs of life e.g.: basic survival or most automatic movements and autonomic functions such as basic tonus regulation in the brainstem and medial cerebellum. It is responsible for primary pain modulation e.g.: redraw reflex and increased tonus. 1.1.4.7.2. Functional properties of the Paleo level The paleo level consists especially of A-d, A-b, and C-fibres as well. It is a relative quicker system but also has tonic activity properties. The paleo level supports the archi-level by use of hormonal adaptation and psycho-emotional adaptation. It takes part of the autonomic function (hormonal function), fight/flight reactions in case of stress and pain and posture regulation (static posture balance). 1.1.4.7.3. Functional properties of the Neo level The neo level consists especially of A-a and A-b fibres and is very quick with phasic responses on stimulation. It analyses the information of the archi- and paleosystem and is guided by use of cognitive responses. The least automatic movements are guided and conscious movements. It regulates the dynamic posture balance and automatisation of movements. It is responsible for the organ sense perception and dissociated movement. 1.1.4.7.4. Interaction and control of the different hierarchic systems in the nervous system General principles of interaction among the different hierarchic systems in the nervous system can be summarized as follows. The paleo-system controls the archi-system and guides it. The neo-level controls the archi- and paleo system and guides both. The neo-level surrounds literally the archi and paleo level. The grey matter is situated medially in the nervous system medial in spinal medulla, the white matter laterally. The neo-system keeps the paleo-level and archi-level in harness. The hierarchic construction of the nervous system can be seen as a gate control system that exists on all levels. 7 1.1.4.7.5. Gate-control in the peripheral nerve fibres Axo-axonal connections between lower and higher fibres exist. The A-a and A-b fibres give off collaterals in the dorsal horn. The A-a and A-b attain the spinal medulla faster and prepare it for the arrival of A-d and C-stimuli. Selective stimulation of higher fibres (A-a and A-b fibres) inhibits the working of the fibres of lower order (A-d and C-fibres). 1.1.4.7.6. Gate control in the dorsal horn At the level of the dorsal horn interaction and control mechanisms exist and this phenomen known as Gate-control in the dorsal horn is also known as the gate theory of Melzack en Wall. The outlets of the A-a en A-b neurons shunt on the outlets of the A-d and C-neurons and their neurotransmitters close the ion-channels of these. The descending pathways of the paleo- and neosystem do the same and work on the interneurons and inhibit the A-d and C-neurons. 11 1.1.4.7.7. Gate-control in the brain The cortical pathways control the sub cortical pathways. They inhibit the brainstem reflexes. Conscious movements and intentions inhibit unconscious tonic reflexes (Example: relaxation). The cortical and sub cortical pathways regulate a directed and conscious life. The brainstem provides the autonomic support. This is all controlled by neurotransmitters. The perception of nociceptive pain not only involves the sensation transmitted and regulated by peripheral and central neurons, but is also affected by higher brain functions. 11 1.1.4.7.8. The uptake of nociception information A-d and C-fibres are the only fibres that can registrate nociception. The A-d fibres are quicker and give epicritic pain when the stimulus is attaining the pain centres. Epicritic pain means precise localisation with immediate redraw reflexes. The kind of pain is described as stabbing, boring, tearing or pulling. The impulses of the C-fibres attain the pain centres much later. They give protopathic pain, which is a continuous pain. That pain is not precisely located. Protopathic pain is burning, booring of a kind and continues much longer. It goes together with autonomic reactions, for expample: oedema. 11 1.1.5. The dorsal horn of the spinal medulla 1.1.5.1. General survey of the classification of the grey matter of the spinal medulla The grey matter is divided in the 10 layers of Rexed. This system is named by Rexed who discovered that the neurons in the dorsal horn where organised in layers depending on their function. Every layer is present in different segments and forms rostro-caudal nuclear columns. The counting happens from the dorsal horn to the anterior horn. Every layer is in contact with another by interneurons and dendrites. Layer I and II: nocisensory outlets of both: musculo-skeletal and visceral structures Layer III: intersegmental ascending pathways (dorsal proprium tract) and outlets to the spinothalamic tract (anterolateral quadrant) Layer IV: exclusive nocisensors from the musculoskeletal system Layer V-VI: fibres arriving from the nocisensors of the skin and viscera Layer VII: lateral horn: interneurons and sympathetic neurons Layer VIII en IX: motoneurons for musculoskeletal system Layer X: hormonal neurons In all levels descending pathways arrive from diverse levels of the brain. 1.1.5.2. Somatotopic ordering of nocisensors in the dorsal horn In layer I-II the nocisensors of viscera and musculo-skeletal structures are laying next to each other. They are ordered in a sagittal way from medial to lateral. The medial structures project medial and lateral structures project laterally. In layer V the nocisensors of certain skin areas are lying next to the nocisensors of viscera. Those are ordered in horizontal layers. For example: the organ-nocisensors under the level of the diafragm are lying next to the skin sensors from Th7-Th10. 1.1.5.3. Segmental interactions in the dorsal horn Normal reactions in musculo-skeletal influence the nocisensoric function. Outlets of nocisensors stimulate interneurons. There exists interaction with the spinothalamic tract and interaction with motoric anterior horn cells (somato-somatic relation). Normal reactions in musculo-skeletal nocisensoric function and influence the outlets of nocisensors stimulate the interneurons causing interaction with spinothalamic tract and with the sympathetic lateral horn cells (viscero-visceral relation). 11 Abnormal reactions can occur when the outlets of nocisensors infect the other nocisensors. Those react in turn causing interaction between motoric and visceral responses. This results in a somato-visceral relation, a somato-sympathetic relation and a viscero-somatic relation. 1.1.5.4. The Importance of Wide Dynamic Range Neurons In layer III, wide dynamic range neurons (WDR-neurons) exist. 21 Those WDR-neurons are interneurons that connect all the A-d en C-fibres from the dorsal horn. They project on the spinothalamic tract (antero-lateral quadrant). The ventral pathways go to the reticular formation, medial thalamus and the medial limbic system. The lateral pathways go to the lateral thalamus and cortex. They connect all visceral and motoric stimuli (= summation) with as consequences that motoric and visceral stimuli are sent together to the brain. The brain receives segmental information and no individual information. The brain can project pain to segmental connected structures. This is termed referred pain. Examples are: the stomach ulcer can provoke inter scapular pain or cardiac complaints and can give ulnaris nerve pain. Pain does not always indicate the exact location and origine. Anamnesis, assessment and clinical reasoning are very important. 1.1.5.5. Inhibition and excitation of the dorsal horn Inhibition and excitation of impulses in the dorsal horn can be caused by outlets of peripheral nerves. For example the A-a and A-b can inhibit the A-d and C fibres (pre-synaptic inhibiton). The outlets of the descending pathways can influence the the nerve ends and the interneurons (postsynaptic inhibition/excitation). The interneurons themselves can cause pre- or postsynaptic inhibition/excitation. Summation of stimuli defines the state of the dorsal horn. If a segment is excited or inhibited depends on the som of stimuli. Nocisensory impulses of the peripheral nerves always excite the dorsal horn. Summation of exciting nocisensoric impulses is defined by spatial and temporal facilitation. Temporal facilitation means the timing; spatial facilitation, the diverse structures that are involved. Impulses of A-a and A-b neurons act generally inhibiting. The impulses from the descending pathways can act in both ways. They are also regulated by temporal and spatial factors. The sum of sti mulating and inhibiting stimuli defines the state of the dorsal horn. An excitated dorsal horn provokes a lot of irradiating pain. 1.2. Assessment of Primary and Secondary Hyperalgesia 1.2.1. Definition of primary hyperalgesia Changes in the local sensibility of the afferent neurons as a result of a lesion in the peripheral tissues are termed hyperalgesia. In case of an increased sensibility of the A-a and A-b fibres the primary hyperalgesia is termed allodynia. In case of an increased sensibility of the A-d and C fibres the primary hyperalgesia is termed hyperalgesia. The lesion in the peripheral tissue can be of inflammation or neurogenic origin. 22 1.2.1.1. Pathophysiology of primary hyperalgesia In case of tissue injury bradykinin and ATP is produced at the site of lesion. Those mediators stimulate the blood- and lymphatic vessels, the mast cells and nociceptors. In the circulation inflammatory mediators are released aswell as histamine, serotonin, NGF, leucocytes, trombocytes and others. C-fibres released neuropeptides such as SP and CGRP. Those modulate and stimulate the release of other inflammatory mediators aswell. All those mediators are termed the inflammatory soup. Those mediators also stimulate the C-fibres which causes a vicious circle. The sympathetic nerve terminals are stimulated by inflammation and release noradrenalin which also stimulates the C-fibres. The sympathetic coupling between C-fibres and sympathetic end neurons occurs. The presence of inflammatory mediators decreases the threshold of all types of endneurons with as a result local allodynia and hyperalgesia. The allodynia and hyperalgesia can spread in the surrounding tissue, by stimulating the surro unding neurons. This is termed the flair zone. 22,23 Figure 16: Consequences of tissue injury: the inflammatory soup. 14 1.2.1.2. Primary hyperalgesia and the dorsal horn The A-d mechanoreceptors and nociceptors, and C-nocisensors stimulate the dorsal horn of somatic connected segments. As a consequence a temporary wind-up can occur. A wind-up is an over stimulation that can hold on for 72 hours. A refectory muscular reaction occurs around the lesion aswell. As a result the stimulation via the ascending pathways (antero-lateral quadrant) to the brain increases. Protopatic pain (quick, stabbing pain) followed by epicritical pain (boring, continuous pain) occurs. The brainstem regulates the autonomic reactions further such as sympathetic, hormonal, and emotional. The C-nocisensors give stimuli to the sympathetic connected segments. As a result the sympathetic system stimulates the C-endneurons (= sympathetic coupling) and vasoconstriction on the arterioles and lymphatic vessels. 20,24 1.2.1.3. Primary hyperalgesia and nerve injury When compressed inflammation occurs as prescribed above. In case of long standing injury, an ectopic injury occurs. This can be located on different locations on the peripheral nerve with the result that hyperalgesia and allodynia occurs on the course of the nerve, the connected dermatomes and this from the nerve root! In the spinal ganglion of the nerve, the sympathetic endneurons grow round the nerve cells with the occurrence of basket formations as a result. Consequently sympathetic maintained pain (SMP) occurs, also termed causalgia. This phenomon can continue for 7 to 10 weeks after the lesion but can also continue afterwards. 10 25 To summarize we can state that inflammation provokes a local hyperalgesia and allodynia, which spreads over the flair zone. Locally a vicious circle between the inflammatory soup and C-fibres takes place and sympathetic coupling between sympathetic end-neurons and C-fibres occurs. This continues until the tissue heals. Normally the medulla reacts with a temporary wind-up and a normal stimulus-response reaction. In case of neurogenic injury, causalgia may occur and sensitisation of the dorsal horn is possible. 22 1.2.1.4. Clinical pain assessment in case of primary hyperalgesia During the pain assessment, in case of primary hyperalgesia, when brushing or by use of punctuate stimuli the following properties are local allodynia and hyperalgesia restricted to the flair zone. In case of a nerve injury the flair zone is restricted to the course of the nerve root. Local sympathetic reactions occur when inflamed but are restricted in time. In case of allodynia and hyperalgesia when brushing and applying punctuated stimuli on the course of the nerve or a part of it, sympathetic reactions in the dermatome of the nerve can occure aswell. 22 1.2.2. Definition of Secondary Hyperalgesia An increased sensibility of all types of nerve fibres that continues outside the flair zone of the original lesion, linked to the course of the hyperalgesia and allodynia around the tissue, is termed secondary hyperalgesia. 22 1.2.2.1. Pathophysiology of secondary hyperalgesia When tissue is injured, nociceptors stimulate the interneurons by use of neurotransmitters such as SP, CGRP, NO, Ca, etc. The A-a and A-b neurons provide inhibiting neurotransmitters and the descending pathways give exciting or inhibiting mediators. The WDR-neurons receive al those impulses and send them to the spino-thalamic tract. WDR-neuron receptors differ. Some open ion-channels using inhibiting neurotransmitters, others open ion-channels using exciting neurotransmitters depending on the kind of receptor. If the stimulus acts inhibiting or exciting depends on the quantity of the opened inhibiting- or exciting ion-channels. In case of secondary hyperalgesia, more excitatory stimuli exist and insufficient inhibiting ways are activated. The WDR-neurons will work exiciting as well because of the fact they do not only activate the spino-thalamic pathways but also on the incoming stimulating neurons. As a result a vicious circle occurs in the dorsal horn. This provokes a decreased thr eshold of the present neurons. The sensors are also stimulated by the dorsal horn and not only by the local lesion. They become sensitized over their whole course with the consequence that the central hyperalgesia is linked to the lesion. When the local lesion is healing, the central allodynia will also disappear. Hyperalgesia is not as much linked to the course of the lesion but can last longer. Its origin is mostly caused by temporal and spatial summation of exciting stimuli. 22 1.2.2.2. Clinical pain assessment in case of secondary hyperalgesia During the pain assessment, when touching (brushing) and applying punctuate stimuli local hyperalgesia en allodynia and extending hyperalgesia and allodynia can be observed. When the pain occurs outsite the spinal column area the touching (brushing) and applied punctuate stimuli starting from the lesion and over the dermatome near by. The application must be enlarged to the neighbouring dermatomes and also to the corresponding segments of the spine. Always compare with the opposite side. Differentiate allodynia and hyperalgesia. 22 In case of primary hyperalgia the allodynia and/or hyperalgesia is restricted to the lesion area and flair zone. The allodynia disappears before the hyperalges